MASTER THESIS WITHIN: Business Administration NUMBER OF CREDITS: 30 ECTS
PROGRAMME OF STUDY: Global Management M.Sc. AUTHORS: Krcic, Šabo & Schubert, Nick
TUTOR: Zawadzki, Michal, Ph.D JÖNKÖPING May 2020
Here lies our beloved project, may it rest in peace
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the impact of grief after project failure
An exploratory study of negative emotions within the context of project failure and their impact on emotional recovery and subsequent learning
Master Thesis in Business Administration
Title Here lies our beloved project, may it rest in peace - the impact of grief after project failure
Authors Krcic, Šabo & Schubert, Nick
Tutor Zawadzki, Michal, Ph.D.
Date 2020-05-18
Key terms Project management; Failure; Negative emotions; Grief; Emotional recovery; Learning.
Background: Firms steadily increase their entrepreneurial activities to maintain competitive advantages as today’s fast-paced business environment requires dynamic responding to increasing customer demands. Projects serve to internally coordinate and respond to external influences that require a firm to react. Meeting set objectives when managing projects is deemed as a necessity when endeavoring to stay competitive. The increased frequency of initiated projects resulting from this setting demands involved project managers to rapidly and effectively recover from project failure as subsequent project success often lies within the seeds of previous failures. Yet, failing can cause intense negative emotional reactions, oftentimes grief. Therefore, we aimed to explore the impact of grief on project managers’ recovery and learning after project failure within the scope of this research.
Purpose: Our aim was to understand and reflect on project managers’ perspectives on how they recover from the negative emotional experience after project failure within organizations and what the role of grieving is within this process. We claim that organizations and project managers can utilize our findings to enhance their understanding of this complex interplay.
Method: To meet our research aims, we conducted a qualitative multi-case study with an exploratory research design based on an abductive form of grounded theory. Our primary data were gathered through in-depth interviews with a semi-structured approach. Sixteen current or former project managers from a variety of industries were interviewed as they shared their experience on project failure. Finally, we used grounded analysis to make sense of and derive findings of the collected data.
Conclusion: Our findings unveil the complex interrelations among project failure, grief, emotional recovery, and learning when surveying it as one intertwined process. We identified the influence of grief on project managers as two-fold: it can interfere with the recovery process and obstruct learning, yet, it can serve as a driving force for action and enhanced abilities. When utilizing beneficial aspects of project failure, organizational support plays an essential role - if mutually coordinated between organization and project managers.
Acknowledgments
___________________________________________________________________________ We are genuinely grateful for the numerous individuals engaged in the development of this study. This work could not have been completed without your contributions, particularly not in the challenging times this research was conducted. Therefore, we would like to dedicate this page to express our sincere gratitude and appreciation.
First, we would like to thank our supervisor Michal Zawadzki, whose objective judgment and criticism pushed and challenged us to constantly refine, simplify, and improve our work. Thank you for all the insights making this study to be of high academic standards. Also, thank you for being accessible throughout these tumultuous times.
Second, we want to communicate a sincere thank you to our fellow students who have read and provided feedback on our study during the course of various seminars. Your inputs were highly valued and have contributed to ensuring the consideration of different perspectives on key subjects. In this context, we also thank all our proofreaders whose final touches ensured the research is comprehendible for readers who only were presented with the final work.
Third, a special thanks to the interviewees. Thank you for devoting your valuable time to participate with great enthusiasm and commitment. You have not only provided us with relevant insights to finalize this work but inspired us to critically reflect on the working environments of tomorrow. Furthermore, your shared insights can provide learning opportunities for various forms of organizations.
Finally, we would also like to express our gratitude and appreciation to our friends and family, supporting us by simply being there when needed throughout this research process.
Thank you.
Šabo Krcic & Nick Schubert May 2020
Table of contents
1. Introduction ... 1
1.1 Background ... 1
1.1.1 Project management ... 1
1.1.2 Objectives and failure ... 2
1.1.3 Learning ... 2 1.1.4 Grief ... 2 1.2 Problem discussion ... 3 1.3 Purpose ... 4 1.4 Research questions ... 4 1.5 Delimitation ... 4 2. Literature Review ... 6 2.1 Failure ... 6 2.1.1 Defining failure ... 6 2.1.1.1 Attribution theory ... 8 2.1.2 Implications of failure ... 9 2.1.2.1 Discontinuity of ownership ... 9 2.1.2.2 Lack of resources ... 10
2.1.2.3 Project failure due to low fulfillment of expectations ... 10
2.1.3 Chosen definition ... 10
2.1.4 Endnotes on failure ... 10
2.2 Grief ... 11
2.2.1 Emotional reactions ... 11
2.2.2 Factors influencing the grieving process ... 12
2.2.2.1 Promotive PO ... 13
2.2.2.2 Preventative PO ... 13
2.3 Grief-recovery ... 14
2.3.1 Recovery strategies ... 15
2.3.2 Emotional intelligence ... 16
2.4 Sense-making and learning ... 17
2.4.1 Cognitive capacities ... 18 2.4.1.1 Metacognition ... 18 2.4.1.2 Analogical thinking ... 18 2.4.1.3 Cognitive complexity ... 19 2.4.2 Normalization of failure ... 19 2.4.3 Self-compassion ... 19 2.4.4 Support groups ... 20 3. Methodology ... 21 3.1 Research philosophy ... 21 3.1.1 Ontology ... 21 3.1.2 Epistemology ... 21
3.2 Systematic methodology and research design ... 22
3.2.1 Grounded theory ... 22
3.2.2 Exploratory research ... 23
3.2.3 Abductive approach ... 24
3.3 Data collection ... 25
3.3.1 Literature review ... 25
3.3.2 Qualitative multi-case study ... 26
3.3.4 Interviews ... 28 3.4 Data analysis ... 31 3.4.1 Grounded analysis ... 32 3.5 Ethical considerations ... 33 3.6 Quality trustworthiness ... 34 4. Empirical findings ... 35 4.1 Project relevance ... 36
4.1.1 Project and failure experience ... 36
4.1.2 Control and decision-making ... 36
4.1.3 Success anticipation ... 37
4.1.4 Project priority ... 38
4.2 Project failure reflection ... 39
4.2.1 Individualistic expectations ... 39
4.2.2 Deterioration point and response ... 40
4.2.3 Project failure cause ... 41
4.2.4 Project failure consequences ... 41
4.3 Emotional impact ... 42
4.3.1 High degree of negative emotions ... 42
4.3.2 Low degree of negative emotions ... 44
4.3.3 Optimistic self-perception ... 45 4.3.4 Emotional triggering ... 45 4.4 Emotional recovery ... 46 4.4.1 Emotional processing ... 46 4.4.2 Distractive measures ... 47 4.4.3 Emotional detachment ... 48 4.4.4 Opportunity-seeking ... 48 4.5 Individual learning ... 49 4.5.1 Failure sense-making ... 49 4.5.2 Emotional interference ... 49 4.5.3 Learning transferability ... 50 4.6 Organizational learning ... 51
4.6.1 Failure acceptance and encouragement ... 51
4.6.2 Normalization of emotions ... 51
4.6.3 Supportive learning ... 52
5. Data analysis ... 53
5.1. Project relevance ... 53
5.1.1 Project experience and control ... 53
5.1.2 Project priority and success anticipation ... 54
5.2 Project failure reflection ... 54
5.2.1 Individualistic expectation ... 54
5.2.2 Project deterioration and response ... 55
5.2.3 Project failure cause ... 55
5.3 Emotional impact ... 56
5.3.1 High degree of negative emotions ... 56
5.3.2 Low degree of negative emotions ... 57
5.3.3 Optimism ... 58 5.3.4 Triggers ... 58 5.4 Emotional recovery ... 59 5.4.1 Emotional processing ... 59 5.4.2 Distractive measures ... 59 5.4.3 Emotional detachment ... 60
5.4.4 Opportunity-seeking orientation ... 61 5.5 Individual learning ... 61 5.5.1 Learning origin ... 61 5.5.2 Emotional interference ... 62 5.5.3 Learning transferability ... 62 5.6 Organizational learning ... 63 5.6.1 Internal culture ... 63 5.6.2 Failure management ... 64 6. Conclusion ... 65 6.1 Discussion ... 65
6.2 Purpose and research question ... 67
6.3. Implications ... 69
6.3.1 Theoretical implications ... 69
6.3.2 Practical implications ... 69
6.3.3 Societal implications ... 69
6.4. Limitations and future research suggestions ... 70
List of tables
Table 1 | Interview lengths………...……….……31 Table 2 | Project overview. ……….………….………35 Table 3 | Summarization of key aspects…..……….………...………68
List of figures
Figure 1 | The Failure/Turnaround Process……..………..……….……7
List of appendices
Appendix 1 | Interview guide………...……….……78 Appendix 2 | Interview consent form...………….………80 Appendix 2 | Categories and themes...…………..………81
1
1. Introduction
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This chapter introduces the topic of grief within the setting of project failure and its correlation to subsequent learning from a managerial perspective. Thereafter, a problem discussion clarifies the relevance of the study along with its identified research gap. This gap lays the foundation for the purpose and research question. The chapter will be concluded with unveiling the study’s delimitation.
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1.1 Background
1.1.1 Project management
Within the last decade, organizations have increased their entrepreneurial activities to gain and maintain competitive advantages. This is required as the world in which they operate is characterized as dynamic and ever-changing (Kuratko, Ireland, Covin & Hornsby, 2005; Shepherd & Kuratko, 2009). Exploiting product and market opportunities through innovative and proactive endeavors continuously occurs within all forms of businesses (Dess, Lumpkin, & McGee, 1999, pp. 85). New technological advancements and increasing customer demands steadily push firms towards fiercer competition, demanding innovation not only as a means to compete but to survive and maneuver this volatile environment. Consequently, the notion of high performance within the context of project management is deemed as a necessity for growth and strategic renewal (Shepherd & Kuratko, 2009). Projects’ objectives tend to be outlined prior to its initiation, these are achieved by adhering to the organizational or external customer/delegator’s preferences utilizing finite resources. Hence, projects are considered temporary work that is restricted by resource-, time-, and demand aspects (McGhee & McAliney, 2007). Due to projects’ unique characteristics, project teams are oftentimes composed only for the purpose of the project with the project manager being responsible for the outcome. Project managers are not seldomly assigned to projects based on their technical skillset rather than their managerial capacities, yet, they need to master the duties of a traditional manager. Therefore, they take on an essential role as they are required to coordinate various tasks revolving around continent planning, managing resources, decision-making, communication, controlling, and reporting. Ultimately, project managers must understand the environment they are operating in for the sake of the project as it can be volatile and not immutable (Hollensen, 2017; McGhee & McAliney, 2007).
2 1.1.2 Objectives and failure
The goals of introducing new projects are as diverse as the firms pursuing them. Objectives may focus on increasing profitability, gaining knowledge to develop new revenue streams, and as an additional but independent strategy (Kuratko et al., 2005). The success of projects oftentimes depends on the degree of commitment towards the innovation effort, which originates mainly from the project manager. Yet, where one encounters uncertainty, there is bound to be a failure. Consequently, the number of new endeavors failing in relation to the attempts is remarkably high (Moenkemeyer, Hoegl & Weiss, 2012; Ucbasaran, Shepherd, Lockett & Lyon, 2012).
1.1.3 Learning
The concept of project failure is not solely portrayed negatively in today's business environment, quite the contrary, it is often considered to be beneficial for economic growth. Failed projects or business endeavors can release vast amounts of knowledge and resources that can be utilized to enhance the success rate of the following undertakings (Knott & Posen, 2005). The authors Covin, Kuratko, and Shepherd, (2009), claim that the subsequent success of projects lies within the seeds of the previous failure. Yet, this subsequent success depends on the organization's ability to learn from prior mistakes. Farso and Keyes (2002), describe failure as a prerequisite for being innovative as they claim that a firm needs to stimulate risk-taking and learn from mistakes to develop new products or processes. Researchers have shifted towards focusing on the beneficial aspects of learning from failure. Today, several researchers claim that within organizations people tend to learn more from failure than from success (Patzeld, Shepherd & Wolfe, 2011).
1.1.4 Grief
Literature is glut with critical insights revolving around learning after failure in organizational contexts including project management. Yet, little is known about the aspect of grief as a negative emotional reaction after project failure and its impact on subsequent learning. Shepherd and Kuratko (2009), describe grief as a negative emotional response that emerges within an individual after the loss of something of great importance leading to the activation of behavioral, psychological, and physiological symptoms. Therefore, understanding the
3 implications of grief after project failure on a personal and organizational level has significant importance in today’s business environment.
1.2 Problem discussion
Organizations are in the need of a workforce that can adapt to change and learn from experiences (Cardon & Shepherd, 2009). This learning can relate to positive and negative events depending on the emotional reaction being triggered within an individual when reflecting on the event. We emphasized the increasing relevance of project work leading to an increased frequency of commenced projects and project failure as McGrath (1995) claimed: “the primary purpose of venturing is to yield new competences, and it is virtually inevitable that errors will be made along the way” (McGrath,1995, pp.123). The interim periods between two projects become shorter, resulting in a compressed time window to recover.
The initial reaction to project failure is a negative emotional response, of which the intensity depends on several factors - these will be discussed in the literature review. According to Kuratko and Shepherd (2009), the most influential factor determining the intensity of grieving is the project relevance: the more important a project is to an individual, the more intense the level of grief when it fails. Yet, project relevance is subjective and varies among individuals working on the same project. Therefore, individuals can experience grief in a different intensity leading to expressing it in different ways. Therefore, we focus in our study on one group of individuals, making the cases comparable. How individuals within organizations perceive, respond, make sense of, and learn from failure has received wide academic coverage, yet, the concept of grief within the project failure context is a limited area of research (Fang He, Sirén, Singh, Solomon & von Krogh, 2018; Kuratko & Shepherd, 2009).
Previous research suggests that even though failure provides opportunities for personal growth and learning (Cope, 2003, 2011; McGrath, 1999), it also creates emotional obstacles to information processing, deep reflection, and other cognitive functioning (Shepherd, 2009). McGrath (1999), stresses the value of thoroughly analyzing failures rather than solely successes as she believes this leads to scholars being able to construct more useful analytical models of value creations. We assume this to be applicable today in the field of project management. To conclude, we identify the problem of emotional interferences after project failure to be essential in various business environments where projects occupy an important role in daily operations.
4 1.3 Purpose
Within this study, we aim to understand and reflect on project managers’ perspectives on how they recover from the emotional experience after project failure within organizations and what the role of grieving is within this process. Understanding this complex matter has not only academic motivations by aiming to minimize a gap in research, but we want to aid organizations and individuals within them to better understand a context that is part of daily operations. Therefore, the findings of this study can also benefit firms to discover which role the organizational setting plays in this context and what measures might benefit establishing an environment in which project managers recover effectively from failed projects, thus being enabled to keep their engagement and intrinsic motivation for future projects. Furthermore, project managers themselves can utilize the findings of this study to enhance their understanding of the role of grief after failed projects.
1.4 Research questions
The core problem as discussed in sub-chapter 1.2 combined with the purpose results in the formulation of the following research question:
How do project managers recover and learn from the negative emotional experience after project failure and what is the role of grieving in this process?
With the guidance of this research question, we will explore the context of project failure, emotional reactions to project failure, and subsequent learning as one interdependent process thus we add crucial insights to existing literature that has acknowledged the importance of grief in the setting of project failure.
1.5 Delimitation
To detect all interdependencies between grief and learning in project management contexts, it would be interesting to interview each member of a project group that has been directly involved in a failed project. However, this would go beyond the scope of this study since we could only focus on a minority of projects as team sizes vary. This, in turn, would lead to an
5 unpredictable number of interviews to conduct. A single case study would give us the opportunity to interview all project members, however, it would also narrow down the usefulness and transferability of the results. Hence, we only focus on individuals who were in charge of a project. We define being in charge based on several criteria that are presented in the methodology. These criteria are our own construct and based on the ones set by McGhee and McAliney (2007).
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2. Literature Review
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This chapter presents the main theories used for this thesis. The segments within this chapter are divided into the following topics: project failure, grief, recovery, and sense-making, and learning. We discuss various viewpoints on the mentioned concepts. The aim is to facilitate the understanding of how grieving after project failure influences the recovery and learning process.
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2.1 Failure
2.1.1 Defining failure
The definition of failure is an ever-changing concept that has been discussed by many scholars in different time eras. However, the difficulties regarding the terminology and the hindrance from developing a deeper understanding of failure stem from the lack of a universally accepted definition (Ucbasaran et al., 2012; Walsh & Cunningham, 2017; Zhao, 2010). Ucbasaran et al., (2012) argue that the definition of failure a researcher decides upon depends on the initial research questions for the study. Research that solely focuses on the financial aspects of failure, should utilize the definition related to insolvency, whilst questions related to the social aspect should take a wider approach and utilize a definition that uses other individuals’ viewpoints. However, failure is widely concurred to be of an undesirable nature that has either direct or indirect negative consequences, which furthermore could have been avoided (Ucbasaran et al., 2012; Zhao, 2010).
Sheppard and Chowdhury (2005), claim that failure is neither the fault of the environment nor the organization but that both factors hold equal accountability. They continue to explain that failure is caused by the misalignment of the organization to the reality of the environment. The same authors propose that a failing business emigrates through a sequence of four stages, this ‘journey’ may lead to failure or a turnaround. These stages all revolve around the concept of a business failure, yet, there are similarities between the business failure and project failure context.
7 Stage 1: Decline
This stage is focused on a performance metric indicating whether the firm or project is declining or not. The decline is visible once the results of previous misalignments of strategies/decisions and environmental obstacles materialize into a slump. It often starts from a balanced firm level and then drops until it reaches its lowest point.
Stage 2: Response Initiation
The mentioned low point then prompts management into corrective actions. In struggling firms or projects these actions often occur when resources are scarce to make the essential changes. The focus has now migrated towards strategy rather than the previous stage with a high-performance orientation.
Stage 3: Transition
The third stage is described as a period of transition and most complex. The reason for the complexity lies within the dynamic and large quantity of factors that are at play: strategy, structure, culture, and people influence each other during times of uncertainty. This stage is focused on implementation, meaning that one needs to invest in people and systems for a manager to properly align all the various activities within the boundaries of the firm or the project.
8 Stage 4: Outcome
In times of uncertainty and rapid business decline, the aforementioned actions may not be sufficient to turn the firm or project around. The fourth and final stage presents the outcome of the implemented activities within the third stage and can thus be assessed as successful or failed. Due to the results being at the center of this stage the focus has migrated back to the performance-orientation (Sheppard & Chowdhury, 2005).
2.1.1.1 Attribution theory
Researchers have turned their attention to attribution theory to investigate the cause-and-effect of failure and learning. This theory claims that individuals search for meaning and try to discover why an event has occurred, whether it is positive or negative. The attributions that dictate the origin of the failure are categorized into the three following dimensions: locus of causality, controllability, and stability (Mandl, Berger & Kuckertz, 2016; Walsh & Cunningham, 2017).
Locus of causality - This dimension revolves around whether the failure occurred due to factors perceived to be either internal (controllable) or external (uncontrollable) to the individual. Controllability - The second dimension focuses on the control that the individual perceived to have at the time in relation to the cause of the failure.
Stability - The third dimension is related to whether or not the individual considered the event related to the failure to remain stable or unstable over time, meaning whether it was deemed to contain a high level of risk.
According to Walsh and Cunningham (2017), when attributing one's failure, factors that are considered to be internal are arguably deemed controllable, whilst external ones are deemed uncontrollable. The same authors argue that locus of causality and stability are connected since factors that are considered internal are oftentimes unstable (prone to change) and the ones considered external are stable (contingent). Locus of causality is arguably the most crucial dimension to consider when exploring the attributions connected to failure. This factor is strongly connected to the origin of the failed business or project, regardless if it originates from internal or external forces. Moreover, the dimension showcases a clear identification of the cause of the failure along with where one might implement corrective precautions when moving forward (Yamakawa & Cardon, 2015). In a study by Morris, Kuratko, Schindehutte and Spivack (2012), the authors claim that isolated business failures do not capture the essence of
9 how one experiences failure. The authors further state that failures are experienced differently alongside the following three dimensions: volume (the number of failure occurrences), velocity (the rate of failures experienced), and volatility (the intensity based on highs and lows related to the failure events). During high levels of failure velocity, negative emotions could create different barriers that disrupt learning procedures, this factor holds a major role when examining the intensity of negative emotions (Morris et al., 2012). Jenkins, Wiklund and Brundin (2014) strengthen the claim that prior failures influence not only the learning process but the intensity of the negative emotions connected to the ‘new’ failure.
2.1.2 Implications of failure
Patzelt, Shepherd, Trenton and Warnecke (2014) elaborate on how project failure is perceived by a person depends on the role within the project. The termination of a project can be either a conscious decision (the individual is in the role of the decision-maker) or delegation (the individual is a project member). However, failure in an organizational context should not be considered a one-time event, thus negative emotions can accumulate over time across multiple failures (Haynie, Patzelt & Shepherd, 2013). Another perspective related to the experience of failure is presented by Singh, Corner and Pavlovich, (2015), these authors examine failure as a concept that is encouraged and associated with learning but in contradiction society still stigmatizes failure. The same authors argue that stigmatization influences individuals' actions, behaviors, and decisions before, during, and after failure. Singh and her colleagues (2015) conclude the study by claiming that stigmatization from society is not a label but rather a process. Previous research regarded stigmatization as a mark of discredit for failed individuals, but this is not the case according to this study (Singh et al.,2015). The variations of definitions and the implications each definition holds will be presented below.
2.1.2.1 Discontinuity of ownership
One of the most common definitions of project failure within a business context is that of a key person no longer being a part of the project. However, this approach to defining project failure can be considered rather general and outdated. The definition is argued to be misleading in recent studies, as the action of linking business failure with exit can also have a positive outcome. Individuals that leave certain projects or businesses can do so due to success. (Singh, Corner & Pavlovich, 2007; Ucbasaran et al., 2012).
10 2.1.2.2 Lack of resources
Another definition of project failure takes a more precise and transactional approach, which connects project failure to bankruptcy and a financial management strategy that was found wanting. Since this approach relies heavily on numbers and monetary in- and outflows, the definition holds an advantage, as that the event which led to the failure is easily observable and recorded, thus making comparisons easier (Jenkins et al, 2014). Yet, this narrow indication of failure neglects certain businesses or projects that are not generating enough substantial revenues to owners or investors and thus classifies the endeavor as failed (Singh et al., 2007; Ucbasaran et al., 2012).
2.1.2.3 Project failure due to low fulfillment of expectations
Another approach to defining the concept of project failure is from the personal criteria of the manager. This definition argues that failure stems from the project initiators’ expectations: these expectations materialize into a threshold that measures whether the minimum requirements of the project or business have been met. This means that the initial manager could still be actively in charge of the project and that it is generating enough profit to stay out of deficit numbers but does not meet the expectations of the project manager, making it ultimately a failure (Ucbasaran et al., 2012). Fang He et al. (2018) concur that business continuance or discontinuance and the performance threshold should be the leading metrics when studying failure.
2.1.3 Chosen definition
As our focus is mainly directed towards the individual project managers experience of failure and because we want a broad—yet comprehensive—definition that reflected our focus, we defined project failure as the cessation of involvement in a project because it has not met a minimum threshold of the expectations set by the project manager.
2.1.4 Endnotes on failure
Singh et al., (2007) present the following categories which they claim are the core aspects that are affected by business failure: economic, social, psychological, and physiological. Their study provides us with a broad view of the influence failure has on an individual’s life. This thesis will touch upon most categories, yet, the main focus will be directed toward the psychological aspect, as we research negative emotions after project failure within the individual. As
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organizational projects occur under the umbrella of an organization, whilst still being managed by a particular individual with unique expectations for the project. As this definition of failure is so strongly linked to the individuals’ expectations, the narrow approach to defining failure is lost, since the definition needs to satisfy both the organizational and individual points of view. This issue has been previously discussed by Farso and Keyes (2002), the authors describe that the level of corporate policies and practices by which firms recognize and accept the value of failure differs to a large extent. The previous statement is further developed by the statement that wounds due to project failure are shallower for individuals who perceive that the organization they are part of accept failure as part of its culture (Kuratko, 2005; Patzeld et al. 2011).
2.2 Grief
2.2.1 Emotional reactions
Grief is a common emotional response concerning the loss of a loved one. Although ceasing a project in a business context can vaguely be compared to the loss of a loved person, Archer (1999) argues that the occurrence of grief as a first emotional reaction after the loss-event is similar. According to Davis and Nolen-Hoeksema (2001) people who just lost someone try to make sense of the event and also strive to derive some benefit from it, making the concept interesting for research purposes.
Jenkins et al. (2014), claim that failure within the business climate will most likely end up associating the failure with emotional distress leading to grief. Fang He et al. (2018) further strengthen this claim and develop the concept of negative emotions connected to failure by arguing that negative affiliations to failure consist of a wide spectrum of emotions such as disappointment, sorrow, fear, anger, shame, and grief. In an older study by McGrath (1995), the author discusses disappointment as prominent negative emotion rather than the modern one of grief. The same author stresses the importance of failures and the vital set of information they hold within projects. She claims that failures that lead to disappointment are a natural and inevitable part of the project journey. To conclude, although linked to negative emotions, grieving helps an individual to recognize and accept the causes of a loss (Blau, 2008; Shepherd, 2009; Shepherd & Kuratko, 2009).
12 Chen et al. (2019) introduce the concept of “positive” and “negative” grieving which relates to an individual's level of error learning orientation. Negative grieving is expressed by emotions or reactions such as denial, anger, negotiation, or even depression, while positive grieving emphasizes exploration and acceptance of the failure event. Finally, the conducted study found that “positive” grieving mediates the correlation between error learning orientation and learning from failure: failure is then considered a chance for development and thus individuals are more willing to learn from the experience. A prior study by Arenas, Briones and Tabernero (2006) found that people with a higher level of error learning orientation perform better and demonstrate more innovation skills. However, Chen et al. (2019) highlight the aspect of personal traits in this context: since the success or failure of a project often relates to the reputation of an individual, the occurrence of failure could harm one’s social image - a person could lose his or her face. People who are afraid of such face-loss focus on the damages the event has caused to their social image and thus grieve more 'negatively' while people who are not afraid of such face-loss have a more rational and constructive approach to it (Singh et al., 2015). Chen et al. (2019) also found that people who are afraid of losing face do not care about the negative reaction to their failure by other individuals, while individuals who are afraid of losing face are sensitive towards other peoples’ reactions
2.2.2 Factors influencing the grieving process
Cardon and Shepherd (2009) recognized that following a failed project the intensity of triggered negative emotional reactions can differ from one person to another. They highlighted that it is crucial to understand why this is the case and to understand why the impact on subsequent learning of negative emotional reactions of individuals differ in their detriment. In another study made by Shepherd and Kuratko (2009), the authors also emphasize that the impact of grief differs between individuals, they continue to argue that individuals that have made a sustained emotional investment will experience a more intensified feeling of grief. The same study defines ‘investments’ as a time dimension, meaning that projects that have been worked on for an extended period of time would likely result in grief.
Hsu, Burmeister Lamp, and Hong, (2017), drew on the literature of psychological ownership (PO) to explain how grief affects individuals. The PO theory revolves around the degree to which individuals perceive the project or business as theirs, or as part of their possession. The authors claim that the influence of grief after loss varies amongst individuals connected to the
13 PO of that person. Therefore, individuals that exude strong feelings towards ownership would experience intense grief. Furthermore, according to the regulatory focus theory, individuals can be focused or prevention-focused. Individuals that lean towards the promotion-focused mindset tend to be driven by their achievement needs and are prone to ‘focus’ on the bright side of failure. Prevention-focused individuals are driven by their safety needs, these particular individuals focus on the dark side of failure events (Brockner & Higgins, 2001; Hsu et al., 2017). Avey, Avolio, Crossley and Luthans, (2009) further claim that the aforementioned orientations are not exclusive, hence an individual can score a high index in both orientations but can likewise be dominated by either one. The same authors have merged regulatory focus theory into PO and developed the following two dimensions: promotive PO and preventative PO.
2.2.2.1 Promotive PO
Promotive PO is described as the ownership feeling that is focused on one's individual achievement needs through possession. Since this factor is primarily driven by achievement needs, individuals that score a high index here focus more on positive outlooks. Failure is regarded as an opportunity to complete other achievement needs that are set by the individual. Therefore, this factor can ease the negative emotions caused by failure (Avey et al., 2009). The author Hsu (2015) continues to explain that individuals with a strong focus towards promotive PO would focus on potential benefits rather than the losses. However, if there are no potential benefits in the loss of a business or project, promotion-oriented individuals will seek-out these gains from other activities, such as pursuing a new career or re-entering a project in order to fulfill his/her achievement needs (Hsu, 2015). Hsu et al., (2017) acknowledge that negative emotions would also be present for individuals that score high within this factor as their achievement needs that drive their ownership feelings were not met. However, the action of seeking-out new gains from other activities, whether they are of professional nature or not, may be regarded as a psychological ‘band-aid’ for such emotions.
2.2.2.2 Preventative PO
Preventative PO is connected to the aspect of territoriality, mainly because territoriality focuses on the individual’s safety and security needs. The term is defined as, “individuals’ protective behaviors such as marking and defending their territories to maintain ownership and communicated ownership to potential threats” (Avey et al., 2009; Hsu et al., 2017, pp. 166).
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Brown, Lawrence, and Robinson, (2005) claim that territoriality is merely an outcome of PO. This dimension would reflect the ‘dark side’ of the PO (Avey et al., 2009). In comparison to promotive PO, individuals that are more dominant within this dimension tend to focus on the downside of events that happen to their possessions rather than the benefits that could possibly emerge. This approach to ownership is rather conservative in terms of protecting the territories these individuals feel that they are entitled to. This dimension is highly relevant within the business environment, should a project fail, individuals connected to that event may see it as a potential job loss or a threat to their security needs, which may lead to strong negative emotions that discourage new undertakings or learning outcomes (Hsu et al, 2017).
2.3 Grief-recovery
Covin et al., (2009) state that there are two main approaches to managing failure, while the first is acknowledging the interference of negative emotional reactions by normalizing failure assuming that this would lead to negative emotions not being induced. Second, acknowledging the positive impact of grief on learning: this approach can be considered “grief regulation” referring to processes involved in dealing with high levels of negative emotions. According to the same authors grieving benefits the learning process since it signals the relevance of an event. They continue to discuss that diminishing grief would lower the signals that direct towards learning, therefore grief regulation has severe benefits in an organizational context (Covin et al., 2009).
Recovery from a loss or a failure is arguably a crucial procedure for any learning to take place. Reaching a stage where a person considers him- or herself to be recovered is a procedure that takes time and consists of multiple phases. The concept of recovery can shift depending on the cause and event, but one aspect, presented by Shepherd (2009), defines recovery as the time period after a loss, before thoughts about the events that have led to the loss, no longer trigger any negative emotions. When examining the recovery aspect within an organization its crucial to understand that firms and departments within one firm differ in a great number of factors such as industry conditions or markets served, therefore employees are differently exposed to the probability and frequency of project failure (Haynie, Patzelt & Shepherd 2013). Furthermore, in environments characterized by a higher frequency of project failure, there is less time to recover and thus less time to reduce the negative emotions before the next project.
15 2.3.1 Recovery strategies
The author Cope (2011) describes the concept of recovery to be divided into three major phases that are interrelated. Initially, there is a ‘pause’ where the individual removes himself/herself from the failed project in order to heal. This phase is similar to a phase of Shepherd’s (2003) model, where the process is presented as the restoration orientation. The second phase revolves around critical reflection: the person that experienced the failure tries to determine and make sense of the events that led to the failure. This phase is oftentimes characterized by suppression and distraction of certain painful emotions and memories. The last phase mainly concerns the procedure of reflective action, meaning that one would move on from the initial failure and pursue new opportunities and projects. Patzelt et al. (2014) also highlight the importance of reflection after a project failure which requires an adequate time span.
Shepherds’ perspective
Shepherd (2003) grief-recovery strategy is presented in the following order: loss orientation, restoration orientation, and oscillation/transition orientation. This strategy differs not only in chronology but also in terms of execution. The loss orientation stage revolves around confronting the ‘loss’. The person revisits the events before and during the time of the failure. Solely focusing on thoughts and memories surrounding the failure can slow down the entire recovery process. Shepherd’s second stage, restoration orientation, focuses on removing oneself from the failure. This process means that the individual will distract him- or herself from triggering the negative emotions connected to the failure. This stage is less emotionally distressing, however, the suppression of one’s feelings can affect long-term recovery. The last stage contains a crucial process which is described as oscillation, meaning that one would switch between the loss- and restoration orientation. This enables the individual to maximize the benefits from each stage, whilst minimizing the negative effects of remaining in one phase for too long. The oscillation process is further discussed by Conroy and O'Leary-Kelly (2014), highlighting its practical significance. However, Byrne & Shepherd, (2013) stated that the oscillation does not always occur among individuals experiencing failure within the business context. Their study concluded that the majority of people displayed signs of problem-focused coping or sense-making, whilst only a few also displayed emotion-focused coping abilities. The individuals within this study who managed to maneuver between both these orientations made the most progress and fully grasped the event(s) that led to the failure, just as Shepherd’s oscillation approach would suggest.
16 2.3.2 Emotional intelligence
The previously mentioned oscillation approach is an essential process when considering grief recovery, however, implementing such a procedure is challenging. For the oscillation approach to be effective, one must confront the loss and process the event(s) that led to it. Furthermore, one must then distract his or her thoughts away from the failure and process the embedded triggers. Lastly, the individual needs to recognize when one of the mentioned orientations have been ‘held’ for too long, and then switch to the other orientation instead (Shepherd 2003; Shepherd & Kuratko, 2009).
As with cognitive capabilities, individuals tend to have different abilities to perform the aforementioned oscillation procedures. The different levels of oscillation could be explained by different emotional intelligence within individuals. Emotional intelligence can be defined as a persons’ ability to observe his/her own and others’ emotions and feelings and to separate these feelings and utilize the information to guide own thoughts and actions. Hence, an emotionally intelligent person is constantly conscious of his/her emotional state. These individuals are aware when the negative emotions accumulate, due to them being in the thought-process of working through the loss. Furthermore, they are aware that these negative emotions can reach a critical level, and then it becomes necessary to distract oneself (Shepherd & Kuratko, 2009).
Fang He et al. (2018) additionally introduce an emotion regulation process when dealing with negative emotions. This process dictates which emotions to ‘feel’ and when to feel them, and how to experience and express them. Similar to the aforementioned recovery strategies, a shifting mechanism is required for any recovery to take place. These two strategies are presented as antecedent-focused and response-focused.
Antecedent- and response-focused
In the first phase, should the post-failure emotions not be fully developed nor, should they change the behavioral or physiological responses, one could implement an antecedent-focused emotion regulation strategy. This approach pairs the failure event to a certain aspect (arguably what lead to the failure) and attaches one or many meanings to that particular aspect (Fang He et al., 2018). In the second phase, once an emotional response is being activated, the emotional regulation starts. The occurrence of failure often results in negative emotions. However, these emotions may initiate different responses such as activating one's learning behavior.
17
From a managerial perspective, one should not restrain negative emotions after failure, however, it is beneficial to manage emotions effectively. For example, a manager could create a learning-from-failure friendly environment (Song et al., 2018). Moenkemeyer et al., (2012) stress that managers can proactively minimize the negative impact of failure in projects by clarifying the reason for the termination and providing an outlook for the future to the members of the team. Furthermore, providing the team and oneself with honest and constructive feedback can limit emotional setbacks and facilitate sense-making.
2.4 Sense-making and learning
As mentioned, grief can be described as an emotional response of a negative nature that interferes with the learning process from the events that surrounded the loss. However, in contrast to learning from the loss of a loved person, which is philosophical and existential, learning from a loss in a business context is practical and constructive (Shepherd, 2003). The relationship between project failure and learning from it has attracted considerable attention and it is an important connection that is recognized and familiar to the world of academia, both within management and entrepreneurship studies (Shepherd, 2003; Zhao & Olivera, 2006). Fang He et al. (2018) states that project failure offers a wide spread of valuable opportunities to learn, not only limited to areas such as market tendencies, product(s), and the venture or project itself but also about one's strengths and weaknesses (Cope, 2011). Patzeld et al. (2011) found that learning does not occur instantly after a failure, but that time is required. Furthermore, learning does not occur automatically since individuals differ in their ability to utilize coping orientations. Although the saying ‘time heals all wounds’ is true, also in an organizational context - referring to the decrease of negative emotions linked to the project failure - the healing process differs depending on the ability to utilize coping orientations (Patzeld et al., 2011).
McGrath (1999) claims that failure offers more benefits than success, this is due to the fact that it is oftentimes easier to pinpoint why a failure occurred rather than success. The author continues to claim that this makes failure analysis such a strong tool for dealing with uncertainty. Cope (2011) further defines recovery from business or project failure as a complex sense-making process, it inhibits both avoidance and confrontation, this aligns with the
18 aforementioned studies and strengthens the oscillation procedures relevance in terms of learning and recovery.
2.4.1 Cognitive capacities
Past research within the psychological area has indicated that certain negative emotions are crucial for the sense-making procedure to commence, whilst they simultaneously obstruct learning (Christianson, 1992; Kumar, 1997). The negative effect oftentimes causes the individual to diminish their ‘attention’ perspective and obstruct ‘information’ processing. These two processes are essential and affect all sense-making attempts such as activities that focus on scanning, processing, and learning from the project (Byrne & Shepherd, 2013; Shepherd, 2009). According to Byrne and Shepherd (2013), certain individuals possess the cognitive capacity to make sense of turbulent and emotional situations. The authors continue to explain that ‘superior’ learning outcomes derive from three main cognitive activities: metacognitive abilities, analogical thinking, and cognitive complexity. The following segments will present and elaborate upon the different cognitive activities that occur when making sense of a particular event (Aleven & Koedinger, 2002).
2.4.1.1 Metacognition
Metacognition is related to an individual's knowledge about their own cognitive processes or the factors that influence them. Another approach to defining this abstract concept could be by breaking it apart. Metacognition captures the awareness, control, and process an individual possesses when it comes to ‘thinking about thinking’ or making sense of your thoughts and why they are there. It is argued that individuals with a high metacognitive ability tend to learn more, by conduction conscious observations and by adapting their thinking when issues emerge (Byrne & Shepherd, 2013).
2.4.1.2 Analogical thinking
Analogical thinking revolves around transferring information. Furthermore, this particular capacity focuses on the individual's capability to process and compare certain projects. This procedure is essential when it comes to transferring information related to the sense-making process and it should be anchored within the relational similarities rather than the superficial differences between the cases that are being compared. Lastly, should an individual be effective
19 in his/her analogical thinking, then it would facilitate the process of separating relational knowledge and transferring it from one project to the next (Byrne & Shepherd, 2013).
2.4.1.3 Cognitive complexity
Cognitive complexity is a more perceptive approach, it focuses on an individual's capability of utilizing a number of constructs to perceive and evaluate their current environment. Individuals with low cognitive complexity tend to have a black-white perception of reality, moreover, they possess few but rigid rules of integration. Individuals that are considered fairly complex tend to perceive an increased number of differences or constructs within their environment (Byrne & Shepherd, 2013).
2.4.2 Normalization of failure
An approach that can ease the intensity of grief or terminate it, is to normalize the concept of failure. The act of normalization concerns the activity of transforming the extraordinary (project failure) and turn it into the ‘ordinary’. This can be achieved by utilizing the organization's norms and routines. According to Shepherd and Kuratko (2009), the task can be considered a success when failure has become a run-of-the-mill occurrence whilst simultaneously being accepted instead of stigmatized. The end-goal is to create an environment where failure does not generate an intense and prolonged negative emotional reaction such as grief. However, there are implications related to the implementation of these new norms and routines. When failure is normalized, it will automatically minimize the emotional output by the initiator(s) of the project (e.g. reduce grief), but since failure has been widely accepted and the stigma of it removed, the emotional input concerning subsequent projects will be reduced as well. Grief and commitment were factors that are interconnected, should grief after project failure be decreased, so would the level of commitment for the next project (van Dyck, Frese, Baer & Sonnentag, 2005; Shepherd & Kuratko, 2009).
2.4.3 Self-compassion
Cardon and Shepherd (2009) found that self-compassion influences the level of interference on learning due to a negative emotional reaction: the greater an individual's self-compassion, the less learning interference there is. Furthermore, they argue that the greater an individual's self-compassion, the more motivation there is for a new undertaking. Self-compassion in this context was defined as self-kindness and mindfulness. Self-compassion is further argued to
20 form a close symbiotic relationship with emotional intelligence. This means that the individual is to a large extend aware that one is experiencing loss, the source of it is known, and the individual has an intent to respond to it (Shepherd & Kuratko, 2009; Shepherd & Cardon, 2009). Individuals with self-compassion try to heal themselves from the suffering the loss is causing, rather than distracting themselves from it. By doing so, they remain connected to the failure and thus have access to the information required to learn. However, the major hurdle that disrupts this is the fact the people tend to disconnect themselves from failure, in order to maintain their worth. This practice is effective when the goal is to maintain high self-esteem, but as described by the authors: “these ego-protective mechanisms obstruct learning” (Shepherd & Kuratko, 2009, pp. 455). The same authors assume that highly self-compassionate individuals tend to assess the failure in relation to oneself, place the loss in a perspective to others, and strive for an emotional balance. When this is executed correctly the failed project is separated from one’s self-worth. Therefore, self-compassion actively ‘protects’ the individual's self-esteem and directly counters the negative effects of the mentioned ego-protective mechanisms (Shepherd & Kuratko, 2009).
2.4.4 Support groups
Supportive groups can be established within the organization to assist with the grief recovery, self-help groups focus on a particular process or outcome and help individuals deal with negative emotions. The organization provides its managers with the possibility to interact with others that have experienced project failure and the loss accompanied by it. By interacting with other more seasoned managers, ‘first-timers’ can develop their behaviors and their coping skills. These groups are often held by an individual that successfully coped with a major loss, they then create an environment where emotional support and information sharing is encouraged. This will ultimately enable individuals to recover faster from grief and regain their confidence to face new projects (Shepherd & Kuratko, 2009; Hirak, Peng, Carmeli & Schaubroeck, 2012).
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3. Methodology
___________________________________________________________________________
Within this chapter, we present the methodological organization of our study. First, we introduce philosophical positions unveiling our ontological and epistemological assumptions. Second, we introduce why we organized our research process on grounded theory and explain the reasons for conducting an exploratory multi-case study. In this context, we demonstrate the reasons for choosing abduction to collect and analyze data. Third, we reveal the steps of our data collection process. We describe our sampling process and how we conducted the interviews to gather data. Finally, we conclude the chapter with an overview of our ethical considerations and quality assurance measures.
___________________________________________________________________________ 3.1 Research philosophy
3.1.1 Ontology
Our philosophical standpoints give a direction of how we conducted the research. Compared to salient components such as sampling strategies or interview techniques, philosophical standpoints are less conspicuous as they lie behind the scenes (Easterby-Smith, Jackson, & Thorpe, 2015). Yet, they impact the research design significantly. Therefore, defining our research philosophy not only led to more transparency but benefitted the overall quality of the study due to increased consistency and clarity. This mainly relates to ontological and epistemological standpoints: while ontology refers to philosophical assumptions about the nature of reality and existence, epistemology refers to a set of assumptions to help to identify the best means of investigating the nature of the world (Easterby-Smith. et al., 2015). Our firm belief is that there is not one single truth, but different truths coexist with underlying facts depending on the observers’ perspective. Hence, we occupied a relativism-standpoint throughout this study.
3.1.2 Epistemology
We believe that reality is socially constructed and meaning to reality is given by people through their interaction with others which conclusively makes reality subjective leading to various realities coexisting. Consequently, we occupied a constructionism-standpoint. Moreover, we assume that human interests are the driver of science and aimed to increase understanding of a particular context with our research, reaching generalization through theoretical abstraction rather than statistical probability (Easterby-Smith. et al., 2015; Ghauri & Grønhaug, 2010). We
22 consider our approach as balancing between the strong and weak form of constructionism: even though we believe that there are many different realities based on subjective perceptions, we focus on human-based discourse and experiences to gather our data. Furthermore, our analysis emphasizes sense-making and understanding purposes with new insights and actions as an outcome (Ghauri & Grønhaug, 2010).
Holding relativism- and constructivism-standpoints aligned with the purpose of the study as our study necessitates a high degree of complexity making the conviction of one single truth inconceivable. Finally, our research design required a high degree of engagement and reflexivity, this will further be elaborated in the data collection chapter (Easterby-Smith et al., 2015; Ghauri & Grønhaug, 2010).
3.2 Systematic methodology and research design 3.2.1 Grounded theory
To conceptualize and structure data, we organized our research process on grounded theory as we identified developing theory by comparative methods to be a principal activity, this relates to observing the same event in different settings (Easterby-Smith et al., 2015). The element of comparativeness is fundamental as Czarniawska (2014) describes that collecting field material, coding, analyzing, and theorizing is a continuous process spread throughout the research. Furthermore, our open approach to the analysis led to structure and categories being derived from the data rather than having pre-existing codes determining the structure (Easterby-Smith et al, 2015).
While key elements are the same, there are different variants of grounded theory, yet we identified Charmaz’ (2000) to be most relevant for our study design due to its close bonds to constructionism, emphasizing the interplay between researcher and participants rather than between researcher and data – this aligns with our epistemological standpoints. We argue that our theory generating was two-fold as we outlined the study to be sufficiently analytic to enable generalizations but also to make it relatable to peoples’ experiences. We therefore thoughtfully had to balance the process of narrowing-down our research problem. Finally, we reached theoretical saturation by comparative methods ultimately resulting in generating new theory grounded in generated data (Easterby-Smith et al., 2015).
23 Based on the iterative character of grounded theory, we implemented an abductive approach to our research as elaborated in the subsequent section.
3.2.2 Exploratory research
Constructionist research designs offer a wide range of methods to implement. The basis of these design constitutes the assumption that observations are subject to individual perspectives and interpretations with the researcher’s purpose to explore several socially constructed truths (Easterby-Smith et al., 2015). The research design serves as the link between the conceptual research problem and the practicable empirical research, it hence constitutes the framework for data collection and analysis (Ghauri & Grønhaug, 2010). This section reflects how we organized our research activity: we identified the methods that provided us with a high probability to achieve our research aims (Easterby-Smith et al., 2015). Since our research purpose enforced a high level of complexity in the process, we assessed an exploratory research design as adequate: we needed to stay flexible in our design approach since there was a possibility of new information becoming available that could have required a direction-change: it was, therefore, indispensable to alertly collect information, observe and construct our explanations (Easterby-Smith et al., 2015; Ghauri & Grønhaug, 2010). Following an exploratory approach to understand and reflect upon individual perspectives on a particular phenomenon and the behaviors that result from it, we conducted a case study. We interviewed 16 project managers from 16 different companies thus making it a multi-case study. All projects took place in different practice areas (additional information in table two of chapter four). We did not limit this study to a specific business sector or country as project managers’ experiences are the unit of research rather than the environment they were in – although we acknowledged and considered contextual influences. The research on negative emotions, in particular grief, related to project management within organizations is limited, therefore we valued a broad approach as our study serves as a foundation future research can build upon.
We are aware of the vulnerability of case studies in scientific contexts due to the large amount of data generated and the difficulty to generalize findings (Easterby-Smith et al., 2015). Yet, we aimed to minimize vulnerabilities by implementing a clear and transparent design ahead of the data collection process as elaborated in the following sections.
24 3.2.3 Abductive approach
The relationship between theory and research is determined by either allowing theories to drive the research process, referring to a deductive approach, or developing theories as a product of the research process, referring to an inductive approach (Easterby-Smith et al., 2015). Hence, the research process offers two primary ways of how to conclude based on assumptions (Ghauri & Grønhaug, 2010). The deductive approach is the most common one, it requires theory-research and hypothesis-formulation which impacts the rest of the theory-research process. Due to empirical testing being one of the final steps, this approach is often intertwined with quantitative research. To conclude, deductive reasoning asserts that if premises are true, the deducted conclusion must be true notwithstanding of their content (Bruscaglioni, 2016). The inductive approach usually starts with observations leading to explicit findings resulting in theory-building that in turn contributes to existing knowledge: herein, conclusions are drawn from empirical observations (Ghauri & Grønhaug, 2010). Therefore, inductive reasoning relates to hypothetical reasoning making conclusions only likely to be true (Bruscaglioni, 2016).
Yet, these approaches are not exclusive, and using elements of both is common among researchers (Ghauri & Grønhaug, 2010). Our procedure differed in that we went from desk research (collecting secondary data) to field research (collecting primary data) and from field to desk research, thus we could refine the emerging theory-building (Czarniawska, 2014). We initiated our study with an extensive literature review until arriving at a theoretical saturation point. When interviews indicated the emergence of theoretical aspects that have not been examined in the literature review, we went from field back to desk research to complete the underlying theoretical framework. We argue that this interplay resulted in an increased quality of our study due to an increased reciprocation of theory and empirical data. Gummesson (2000) describes the approach of combining elements of both deduction and induction as abduction, which fosters the exploration of discoveries in a logically and methodologically practice (Bruscaglioni, 2016; Dubois & Gadde, 2002). The constant process of switching from one type of research activity to the other led to an inflated understanding of both theory and empirical data (Dubois & Gadde, 2002). Furthermore, it generates “cross-fertilization where new combinations are developed through a mixture of established theoretical models and new concepts derived from the confrontation with reality” (Dubois & Gadde, 2002, pp. 559).
25 3.3 Data collection
3.3.1 Literature review
Literature reviews provide secondary data to better outline existing information that is linked to answering the research problem (Easterby-Smith et al., 2015; Ghauri & Grønhaug, 2010). A literature review can be considered an analytical summary of existing research to a particular topic making it an important stage of our study since we aim to advance understanding in a defined field (Easterby-Smith et al., 2015). Before stating what has been researched in this field, we evaluated and critically reviewed the existing literature as suggested by Ghauri & Grønhaug (2010). In this context, we obtained an overview of different theoretical and methodological approaches applied by other researches in this field of study (Bell & Bryman, 2015). We followed Bell and Bryman’s (2015) advice by mainly processing academic articles that are returned to in the analysis chapter to only incorporate academic sources that aid in answering our research question. We emphasize that the literature review was not discontinued the moment we completed writing the chapter, but we observed relevant publications throughout the entire research process. This aligned with our abductive analysis approach enabling us to switch between desk and field research.
After identifying, narrowing down, and formulating the research problem, we agreed on using Web of Science as a search engine for collecting secondary data. A search engine can be considered a program that helps researchers finding relevant academic articles (Easterby-Smith et al., 2015). Our systematic literature review consisted of the following steps: for the first web of science search, we used the combination “project failure” AND “grief” which resulted in thre articles. We then conducted another two searches: first, using the combination “project” AND “grief” AND “failure” which resulted in 13 articles in the Business or Management category; second, using the combination “project” AND “grief” AND “recovery” which resulted in 12 articles in the Business or Management category. When we got acquainted with the articles by thoroughly reading their abstracts, we excluded 13 articles, consequently leading to ultimately 15 articles. We ensured that all articles were peer-reviewed.
We then identified the six most relevant articles among the results of our systematic search, to then conduct a traditional review making use of the snowball approach. We, therefore, examined the references of these articles: this led to reviewing 39 additional articles. In this context, we could identify key scholars whom we looked further into, picking out their most
