Canada’s National Energy Policy: A
Threat to the Right to Health of
the Inuit People?
Redesigning Canada’s National Energy Policy
Shaun Trainor
Human Rights
Bachelor level, MR106L Bachelor thesis, 15 credits
Abstract
Every individual, regardless of ethnicity, religion, income, etc., has the right to health. The right to health is a fundamental human right that can be further strengthened through the lens of Martha Nussbaum’s central capabilities. This thesis explores how Canada’s current national energy policy is focused on fossil fuel extraction and combustion, which is a leading cause in the rise in the levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and changing the climate. Based on the evidence this thesis explores how, through its role in the climate crisis, the government of Canada is hindering the full enjoyment of the right to health by the Inuit, and how there is a need for a redesign in the national energy policy. A focus on climate justice is raised as the best possible focus for this redesign, in the energy policy, in order to respect the right to health of the Inuit.
Key Words
Climate Change, Health, Climate Justice, Energy Policy, Canada, Capabilities Approach
Table of Contents
1. Introduction 1
1.1 Intent 2
1.2 Research Question 3
1.3 Delimitations 3
1.4 Relevance to Human Rights 4
1.4.1 Climate Change 4
1.4.2 Right to Health 4
1.4.3 Energy Policy 5
1.4.4 Nussbaum’s Central Capabilities 6
1.5 Definition of Concepts 6 1.5.1 Anthropogenic 6 1.5.2 Climate Justice 6 1.6 Previous Research 7 1.6.1 Inuit Health 7 1.6.2 Public Health 8
1.6.3 Climate Change and Energy Policy 9
1.6.4 Climate Justice 10 1.6.5 Research Motivation 10 2. Theory 11 2.1 Capabilities Approach 11 2.1.1 Life 12 2.1.2 Bodily Health 12 2.1.3 Bodily Integrity 12 2.1.4 Affiliation 13 2.1.5 Other Species 13 3. Method 14 3.1 Argumentative Method 14 4. Background 15 4.1 Inuit Diet 15
4.2 Sea Ice and Transportation 16
4.3 Canadian Energy Policy 17
4.4 Fossil Fuels and the Climate 17
5. Analysis 18
5.2 Health 20
5.3 Government Inaction 22
5.4 Alternative Energy Policy 24
6. Conclusion 26
6.1 Future Research 27
List of Abbreviations
API American Petroleum Institute CAD Canadian Dollars
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
COP21 21st Conference of the Parties
CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons
CH4 Methane
GHG Greenhouse Gas
H2O Water Vapour
ICC Inuit Circumpolar Council IEA International Energy Agency IGO Intergovernmental Organisation
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change N2O Nitrous Oxide
NDC Nationally Developed Contributions NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
OHCHR Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights
UN United Nations
UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UNGA United Nations General Assembly
WHO World Health Organisation WWF World Wildlife Fund
1. Introduction
Anthropogenic climate change, and the manner in which human society responds to it, has become one of the most pressing issues of the 21st century. The latest Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) report (2018), stated that human civilisation has just 12 years, now 11, to mitigate the worst effects of climate change by keeping global temperatures from rising 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. The report further concluded that human activity has already caused an approximately 1°C rise in average global temperatures and that it is likely, with high confidence, to reach 1.5°C sometime between 2030 and 2052 (IPCC; 2018, 6). Already the effects of this climate crisis are being felt. One region in particular that is feeling the effects in northern Canada, that being, for the purpose of this study, the arctic region in which the Inuit peoples reside. The Inuit people, whom have resided in this arctic region for a millennium, are acutely aware of climate change and the effects it is having on the environment upon which they depend for subsistence and upon which Inuit culture and traditions are based.
Climate change is predominantly argued to be a threat to the survival of the human species on planet Earth by scientists, intergovernmental organisations (IGOs), non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and social movements. Examples of these being the IPCC, World Wildlife Fund, FridaysForFuture, and Extinction Rebellion. The former Secretary General of the United Nations, Ban Ki-moon, at the 64th United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) meeting in 2009, stated that
“the threat of catastrophic climate change” is the “greatest challenge that we face as a human family” (UN Secretary General; 2009). Further, the WWF, in their most recent Living Planet Report (2018), noted that the current generation is the first to have “a clear picture of the value of nature and our impact on it” and that we may, with a high degree of certainty, “be the last that can take action to reverse this trend” (WWF; 2018, 8). Furthermore, there was a wide-ranging consensus among the states at the annual meeting of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), that climate change is one of, in addition to the loss of biodiversity, most pressing and serious challenges that is facing the world and human society today.
With this coalescence around the seriousness of the threat posed by climate change to the survival of humans on Earth, states came together in 2016, for the 21st Conference of the Parties
(COP21). COP21 saw the world come together to create and sign what is commonly known as the Paris Agreement with the aim of combating climate change while accelerating and intensifying the
actions and investments needed for a sustainable, low carbon future. This included, among other things, an agreement to strive to keep global warming below 1.5°C as well as to ensure that financial investments are consistent with a low greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and climate-resilient pathway. Further the Paris Agreement further required all Parties to the agreement to put forward their best efforts through nationally determined contributions (NDC).
The Government of Canada submitted its long-term low GHG development strategy to the UNFCCC on the 19th November 2016, in line with the requirements of the Paris Agreement for all
Parties to put forward their best efforts through NDCs. Canada outlines several important factors that make up the context in which this will be achieved. One factor being that the government will work collaboratively with the Indigenous peoples of Canada and that their consultations with said peoples will respect Canada’s constitutional, legal, and international obligations to its Indigenous peoples (Environment and Climate Change Canada; 2016, 11). Through these measures Canada hopes to ensure a low GHG economy which is in line with keeping global average temperatures from rising above the aforementioned agreed upon limit of 1.5°C. This is important for a plethora of reasons including, as noted by the WHO (2018), greater warming of the Earth leads to greater risks for human health. This is especially true for those in low-income areas, and more extreme climates, or communities more reliant on traditional ways of living which are even more dependent on the natural world.
The Government of Canada states that the vision for the coming decades is to meet the rising global demand for fossil fuels, specifically oil and gas in addition to funding renewable energy (Natural Resources Canada; 2019). This is in stark contrast to the Paris Agreement and the commitments Canada has made under this agreement as well as within their NDCs. Further, the continued exploitation, production and consumption of fossil fuels will help to ensure that global average temperature rise is not kept below 1.5°C. Further, temperatures will continue to soar it the Arctic region, home to the Inuit people of Canada, who rely on steady, cooler temperatures to ensure the buildup and maintenance of sea ice for them to take part in their traditional way of life and fully enjoy their right to health.
1.1 Intent
The intention of this research paper is to demonstrate that there is a need to redesign Canada’s national energy policy with more of an understanding of the concept of climate justice in order to ensure that the ability of the Inuit people, in northern Canada, to claim their right to health. The assertion here is that Canada’s national energy policy, as it is now, does not adequately take into consideration the
effects it has on the rights of the Inuit people in northern Canada. The default setting in Canada has been to put national energy policy over the rights of the Indigenous peoples. This has come to light in recent years with the court cases being conducted between the government and Indigenous populations in British Columbia and Nova Scotia over pipelines and shale gas caverns, to the health effects on the community of Fort Chipewyan, from tailing ponds built downstream by oil companies working in the Alberta tar sands. In order for the rights of the Inuit to be ensured, this default setting of the government needs to be challenged and, if found to be infringing upon their rights, changed. This paper seeks to do exactly that in proposing that it should be redesigned in a manner that is puts climate justice at the forefront rather than fiscal profit.
1.2 Research Question
In order to respect the right to health of the Inuit, how should Canadian energy policy be designed?
1.3 Delimitations
Since this study looks at how climate change, brought on in part by Canada’s energy policies, in northern Canada affects the full attainment of the right to health of the Inuit people, this research will focus on the physical, mental, and cultural health of the Inuit people. This is due to the fact that the Inuit have a culture and way of life that is distinctly intertwined with the natural world in which they are living, especially with sea ice.
Further the research will focus solely on Canadian energy policies and not policies of other nations, nor international policies. Yet, it should be noted that the policies of other states can, and likely does, play a role in the full attainment of the right to health of the Inuit people. This is due to the fact that, according to the WHO (2018; 18), air pollution can, and does, cross borders and thus the pollution in other countries can contribute to local levels of pollution in northern Canada.
Additionally, since the choice of which texts to analyse and how is left to the discretion of the researcher, it raises the question of objectivity. This idea is outlined by Johnstone (2002; 19) whereby she states that every choice about material, to be included in the analysis, that is made is also a choice about which material to exclude from the analysis. Further, Johnstone argues that such choices have implications for, and affect the results of, the analysis due to this choice being seen as a restriction on the analysis.
Furthermore, mental health issues do not occur in isolation, rather they are the accumulation of several compounding stressors as noted by MacDonald et al. (2015; 134). This research, however, will not look into all of the compounding stressors that play a role into the mental health issues of the Inuit people. Some of these stressors could be the high rates of poverty, lack of proper housing,
colonisation, and/or high food costs. It must therefore be understood that this research will only look into the effects that the changing environment has on the mental health of the Inuit people independent of these other factors.
1.4 Relevance to Human Rights 1.4.1 Climate Change
The world is in the midst of a climate crisis. The climate of the world is changing, due to rapidly increasing temperatures and the breakdown of ecosystems and loss of biodiversity. For decades it has been pushed to the side and understood as an environmental issue, one which does not affect human society to a great degree. Further, many did not see it as an issue at all. This understanding has changed. There has been a rise in public awareness due to the FridaysForFuture Climate Strike movement and Extinction Rebellion which have been fueled by inaction and the IPCC reports. The 5th Assessment
Report of the IPCC unequivocally stated that climate change is real. Furthermore, the report stated that this change in the climate is due to human-made greenhouse gas emissions (IPCC; 2014).
The changing climate is wreaking havoc on life on Earth and will continue to do so due to an increase in the frequency of extreme weather events and natural disasters. Rising sea levels, melting sea ice, floods, heat waves, water shortages, desertification, wildfires, and the spread of both tropical and vector-borne diseases, among many other extreme weather events, are already directly and indirectly effecting the enjoyment of a range of human rights (OHCHR; 2019). Some of the rights which can already be seen to be affected, especially for those in already disadvantageous situations, are the right to: life, water and sanitation, self-determination, culture and development, food, health and many more.
The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) has outlined a list of ten key obligations and responsibilities of both States and other duty bearers such as businesses and the implications these have for climate change related policies, agreements, and actions. The first key obligation outlined in Understanding Human Rights and Climate Change, details how States have an obligation to “respect, protect, fulfill and promote all human rights” and thus they must seek to mitigate climate change in order to prevent its negative impacts on human rights (2016, 2). Further the document outlines the key human rights which will be affected by climate change if its worst effects are not mitigated, in part through keeping rising global temperatures below the 1.5°C threshold.
1.4.2 Right to Health
The right to health is inextricably linked with the idea and regime of human rights. In large part this is due to its importance to every human being on planet earth. Further, this right has been codified in
many of the international treaties, such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Convention on the Rights of the Child and the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, to name a few. However, the first formal declaration of a right to health within international law came in 1946, with the Constitution of the World Health Organisation. The constitution of the World Health Organisation (WHO) states that the right to health is not just something that we should strive for, not just something for governments to consider, rather it is the attainment of the highest possible standard of health. This highest possible attainment of health is defined as not just the absence of disease and infirmity, but as a state in which there is complete mental, physical, and social well-being, is one of the fundamental human rights (WHO; 1946).
1.4.3 Energy Policy
Human society has developed at an exponential rate in the past 200 years due, in large part, to the discovery of fossil fuels. Through the burning of these resources the human species has been able to build a more mechanic world separated from the natural world. This burning of fossil fuels has continued to grow, even to the present day and at a time when there is no doubt about the need for the use of fossil fuels to decrease (Earth Systems Science Data website; 2018, Figure 1). This has been due, in part, to the lowest cost of extracting these resources. However, in recent decades it has become increasingly expensive to extract these resources and the industry has needed to rely heavily on vast amounts of subsidies from governments, such as that of Canada (IEA website; 2019).
However, the financial costs of fossil fuel extraction are not the only costs that humanity must bear. The use of fossil fuels has an immense impact on the natural environment of the planet and on the health of life on it. This is due to the fact that burning fossil fuels releases CO2 into the atmosphere where it is trapped, causing the planet to warm as well as reducing air quality (Our World in Data; 2019). This warming is happening at an alarming rate, and governments around the world agreed in 2015, that the worst effects must be mitigated, and global average temperatures kept below a 1.5°C rise.
Canada is one of the leading producers of fossil fuels and one of the largest energy consumers in the world (Statistics Canada; 2019). This is not to say that Canada does not get the majority of its energy from renewable sources, rather it is to point out that it continues to extract fossil fuels to be burned in Canada and elsewhere. Canada’s national energy policy has been to ensure that Canada can meet projected growth in global demand for fossil fuels in the future, while investing in renewable energy sources (Natural Resources Canada; 2019).
Yet energy demand need not be met by fossil fuels for many forms of cleaner, renewable energy, such as wind, solar and hydro, exist. In the past these have often been considered too expensive or unreliable, but thanks to innovation in areas such as photovoltaic cells and batteries it is now cheaper than ever to produce and store renewable energy (World Economic Forum; 2019).
1.4.4 Nussbaum’s Central Capabilities
Rights have been understood in many different ways, and difficult theoretical questions swirl around them. It is often thought that there is a general consensus, yet often there are deep philosophical divides on what exactly these rights entail for those who hold them and those who have the duty to ensure that they may be enjoyed. Martha Nussbaum has put forward a list of central capabilities, a list which she sees as being just another species of the human rights approach, a close ally (Nussbaum; 2006, 78 & 284). Nussbaum notes that the capabilities approach and the human rights approach go hand in hand with one another. She states that many of the entitlements which are stressed in the human rights approach is also stressed within that of the capabilities approach and that they play a similar role in providing an account of fundamental entitlements (Nussbaum; 2006, 285). The approach can find further relevance to human rights in that it covers much of the terrain which is occupied by both first and second-generation rights. The capabilities approach, and more specifically, the central capabilities list Nussbaum presents can act as an important supplement to the rights presented by the human rights approach (Nussbaum; 2006, 285). Thus, ensuring the maximum ability of people to enjoy their rights.
1.5 Definition of Concepts 1.5.1 Anthropogenic
The use of the word anthropogenic has become ever more common in the societal vocabulary. It is defined, within the Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2019), as of, relating to, or resulting from the actions of human beings, specifically their influence on the natural world. Climate change has been chiefly been identified as an environmental issue, however this distinction elucidates its link to human activities. This associating is due to the scientific consensus around the link between climate change and human activities such as burning fossil fuels.
1.5.2 Climate Justice
Climate justice is a term which is used in order to frame global warming as both an ethical and political issue, rather than one which is purely an environmental issue. It should be noted that it is also used to indicate actual legal action that is taken on climate change issues. Further the Mary Robinson Foundation – Climate Justice notes that climate justice is a link between human rights and
development to ensure the safeguarding of the rights of those peoples who are most vulnerable to climate change (Mrfcj.org; 2018).
1.6 Previous Research
The following section will seek to elucidate for the reader previous research which has been done. This will be research which has been conducted into the health of the Inuit in northern Canada, and how their mental and cultural health is tied to the natural world around them, especially the sea ice. Further it will detail previous research done surrounding energy policy, climate change and climate justice. The purpose of this section will be to showcase for the reader the work which has been done as well as the work that the arguments made in this paper are built upon. The material has been divided into four clear categories: Inuit Health, Public Health, Climate Change and Energy Policy and Climate Justice.
1.6.1 Inuit Health
In recent years an increasing number research has been conducted into the health of the Inuit people in northern Canada. It has largely centred around the cultural and traditional connection, as well as the dependence, the Inuit have to the sea ice and their sense of place. Place being that in which they reside, and their traditions and culture have flourished in. Of the studies which have been conducted there are, in particular, three that have taken place since 2012, that will be discussed in this section.
Each study noted that Indigenous communities, including and especially Inuit communities, will face more serious challenges from climate change. This is due to their often high-dependence on the natural environment, inhabitancy of highly susceptible areas to climate change ad past traumas and degradation, disruption, and erasure of relationships with nature inflicted upon them during colonisation and the forced integration of the residential school system (MacDonald et. al.; 2015, 138 & Durkalec et. al.; 2015, 18). The researches focused on this connection to place, environment, and its effects on the health of the Inuit. This focus on place was, in part, due to the fact that it highlights where the effects of climate change are being most acutely felts (Willox et. al.; 2012, 539). Further, as mentioned, Inuit communities are intricately connected with their environment. Sea ice is a particularly critical element of the Artic environment in which Inuit reside (Durkalec et. al. 2015, 18).
There is, as has been mentioned above, a growing body of research into the health of Inuit in Canada’s north. At the same time there are ever increasing reports of mental health problems, such as anxiety, suicide, and addiction as well as injuries all relating to the changing ice and weather conditions (Durkalec et. al.; 2015, 21 & Cusolo Willox et. al.; 2012, 540). One such study into the mental health of the Inuit people elucidated that they felt mentally stronger when they were able to be out on the
land, but when this was not possible, due to the melting sea ice, they felt frustrated, depressed, and extremely stressed (Cusolo Willox et. al.; 2013, 262). Further, the Inuit people that were interviewed in this study connected these impacts from not being able to be out on the land to other issues they experienced in their lives. Some things that they connected this with were an increase in family stress, increased suicide rates, already among some of the highest in the country, as well as increased drug and alcohol usage and the amplification of past traumas, such as colonisation and the residential school system (Cusolo Willox et. al.; 2013, 262).
1.6.2 Public Health
Research in the field of public health, until as of recent, has not had at its focus climate change and the possible effects it could have on the health of the human species. In spite of this, within the public health discourse, it has long been understood that the climate can and does have wide ranging impacts on human health (Haines, Kovat, Campbell-Lendrum, & Corvalan; 2005, 585). However, recently, and quite rapidly the focus has changed to one which seeks to better understand the role climate change has in the field of public health (Maibach et. al.; 2010, 2).
Researchers have come to agree that climate change is having and will continue to have adverse effects on the health of the human species. Leaf, Watts et. al. and Costello et. al. note that the Earth’s temperatures are likely to rise about 2°C above those of the preindustrial global average temperatures. This rise will take humanity out of what the scientific consensus considers to be the safe threshold of 2°C or less of temperature rise (Costello et. al.; 2009, 1693). Yet, at the same time as there is ever already a well-founded consensus within the scientific community and a growing one within the public health community about the dangers of climate change, especially to human health, surveys of the general public have indicated that there is a lack of knowledge and awareness of the effects climate change is and will continue to have on human health. Maibach et. al. outlines several recent surveys of people from Canada, Malta and the United States of America which demonstrate this lack of knowledge and awareness.
A growing number of studies has shown that climate change, induced by human activities such as the burning of fossil fuels, is having an effect on, among other things, respiratory health. Due to the increased concentration of particulates in the air that increase the likeliness of lung diseases (Leaf; 2010, 1580). Respiratory health is not the only area in which researchers have begun to look and notice the adverse effects of climate change on human health. They have noted that extreme weather events, such as melting sea ice, forest fires, drought, etc., which are increasing in magnitude and frequency, appear to relate to different mental health impacts (Berry, Brown & Kjellstrom; 2009, 124).
The discourse around public health and its relation to climate change is evolving to include it as one of the central factors in poor health among the human population. This discourse is supported by research that is being conducted into communities that are already feeling the effects of climate change, such as the Inuit in northern Canada. However, the majority of the public is still unaware, and governments continue to maintain energy policies deeply rooted in fossil fuel extraction.
1.6.3 Climate Change and Energy Policy
The link between climate change and fossil fuels has been known for more than a century (Arrhenius; 1896). Yet, global energy policies, including the national energy policy of Canada have remained focused on fossil fuel extraction. Additionally, the conversation around climate change has focused on it being solely an environmental and scientific issue. In the past ten years, however, due to the IPCC helping to create a better understanding of the effects of climate change, public opinion has shifted as has the conversation. Thus, the issue of climate change has become a major, unavoidable part of energy policy (Jean-Baptiste & Ducroux; 2003, 156).
Research into the issue of climate change becoming a major and unavoidable part of energy policy, however, has lagged behind. There are, indeed, immense volumes of scientific research which have detailed the links between the extraction and burning of fossil fuels and the rising concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere, which has in turn led to rising global temperatures and climate change. Yet many do not explore the fact that fossil fuels are used to meet, roughly, 85% of the worlds energy demands, and accounts for, roughly, 23 billion tonnes of the 29 billion tonnes of CO2 released annually by human activities, thus global energies policies are directly fueling climate change (Jean-Baptiste & Ducroux; 2003, 156). There however have been a few researchers which have delved into this area of research.
The research that has been done into the links between national and global energy policy and climate change has, largely, concluded there is a need for a change in energy policy due to the effects of climate change. For they noted that energy generation from fossil fuels is one of the major drivers of anthropogenic climate change (Bryne & Portanger; 2014, 315). They noted that energy demand is steadily rising, and that in order to meet the energy demands that are predicted for 2050, with current energy policies, CO2 emissions would rise to 50 billion tonnes per year. While according to the IPCC (2001), they would need to be cut in, at minimum, half of what they are today.
Further, Morton, Rabinovich, Marshall, and Bretschneider have noted that how climate change is communicated to the public in a way in which they understand and can feel the ability to affect is one of the most important issues facing the world today (2010, 103). Many have viewed
climate change as solely a scientific and environmental issues, while many have viewed energy policy as simply an economic issue. Yet these two issues, has stated above, are intricately intertwined with one another and are environmental, scientific, economic, and human issues that need to be dealt with together. Energy policy offers a perfect way in which to help communicate the importance of mitigating the worst effects of climate change and biodiversity loss that is comprehensible to the general public. This is because climate change, in the era we are living, is no longer naturally occurring at an ebb and flow pace, rather it is now at an accelerated pace dominated by the influence of human activities, such as the policies we enact to ensure we meet energy demands (Karl & Trenberth; 2003, 1719).
1.6.4 Climate Justice
The effects of climate change will have harmful consequences for the human species, and these will be felt more quickly and acutely by those groups who are most vulnerable and disadvantaged (Caney; 2010, 164 & Schlosberg; 2012, 447). The Inuit of northern Canada are one of such group. As Sarah Trainor et. al. (2017) noted, the Inuit, among other groups such as the Gwich’in and the Dene, have an intimate relation, upon which they are heavily reliant for physical, mental, and cultural sustenance, with the places in which they reside. For the Inuit there is a strong connection to and reliance upon the sea ice. Yet, the ice upon which they rely is quickly melting (McCauley & Heffron; 2017, 2).
Researcher, such as Simon Caney, have noted that climate change jeopardises some of, if not all of, the rights enshrined in the human rights framework. Caney notes that one of these rights that climate change is and will continue to effect is the right to health (Caney; 2010, 164/167 & Schlosberg; 2012, 448). Further, it has been noted that to ensure the rights enshrined in the human rights framework as well as to mitigate the worst effects of climate change there is a need for a more just transition. McCauley & Heffron (2017) state that for this to happen there needs to be a full appreciation for the multiple realities of the world, of the intricacies of human society such as gender, ethnicity income, etc. Further, they note that a key injustice in this world is that society continues to have an over-reliance on fossil fuels to meet the growing energy demands while at the same time the urgency of carbon reduction necessitates a united conceptual approach in order to ensure that there is justice through the transition (McCauley & Heffron; 2017, 2/3). Additionally, Henry Shue notes that in the short term the necessary reduction measures that are needed will be costly and thus different factors must be accounted for in order to ensure justice throughout the transition (Shue; 2014, 203).
The above sections of reviewed literature, each with its own theme, tie together to reveal an area in the research which has been left vacant. As it has been noted, there has been an increasing amount of research into the Inuit health, as well as to the relation between climate change and public health. Further, substantial research, dating back over an extended period of time, has been conducted into climate change and energy, and more recently into energy policy. Lastly, there has been a number of articles, most written in more recent years, on the topic of climate justice. Yet, with all the research that has been done, there is little in the way of research into how the energy policy of Canada could be affecting the health of the Inuit, and from there how, through an understanding of the capabilities approach, a redesigning of these policies with climate justice as their main focus, might be of benefit. Thus, this research is motivated by this vacancy in the research. It is felt that the discussion which is being had, and that the rights of the Inuit people could benefit from a better understanding, as well as from a different conception of how Canada’s national energy policy can be designed in the wake of climate change.
2. Theory
2.1 Capabilities Approach
Often when human rights are being argued for it is done so from within the human rights regime. However, the human rights regime is restricted in many ways, and does not take certain aspects of the reality of the world into consideration. One such consideration which is not accounted for is that of an individual, or group of individuals, ability to claim their right. This is where an understanding of the capabilities approach comes in handy. As Ingrid Robeyns (2006) has noted, the capabilities approach has two core assertions, one of which is that the freedom one has to achieve well-being should be understood in terms of their capability, in other words, this is to say their real to do what they value. Thus, this paper will seek to inject the capabilities approach, specifically a list of central capabilities detailed by Martha Nussbaum, into the discussion around the right to health for the Inuit people. This argument, from the research conducted, is felt to be largely overlooked within the scholarly discourse surrounding this issue, especially in relation to Canada’s national energy policy.
Nussbaum lays out a list of ten central capabilities. This list includes the capabilities of life, bodily health, bodily integrity, affiliation and of other species. These capabilities will make up the theoretical framework of this paper, and thus will guide the arguments made throughout the analysis. To best understand these capabilities and to best elucidate the theory that is being used they will each be briefly explained as to what they are and how they are useful for this paper.
2.1.1 Life
Life is the first capability which Martha Nussbaum outlines in her list of central capabilities. The life capability is defined as being that in which an individual, or group of individuals is able to live a life that is normal in length for a human being (Nussbaum; 2011, 33). Of course, the lifespan of an individual varies from country to country, but there is a rough average which the human species lives to, about 79 years. However, many around the world are unable to enjoy such a life. The Inuit are one such group with an average lifespan of 70 (Statscan; 2019).
This capability is of importance for the study at hand for a couple of reasons. First off it enables us to explore the differences in life expectancy of the Inuit from the rest of the population of Canada and the world. This allows us to have a starting point, a point upon which to build our understanding of life and what a life in which the enjoyment of the right to health enables one to life. In other words, when one has the ability to enjoy the right to health, among other things, they are able to live a life to, at minimum, the length of a normal human life.
2.1.2 Bodily Health
Bodily health is the second of the central capabilities outlined by Nussbaum. This capability entails that people are able to have good health, and this includes reproductive health, the ability to be adequately nourished and the ability to have shelter from the elements (Nussbaum; 2011, 33). This capability will be important to showcase how along with having the right to health, the Inuit must also have the ability to fully enjoy this right. The difference here being that one may have the right to health enshrined in law, i.e. within the conventions and documents of the human rights framework, but yet not be able to live a healthy life. This could be due to many factors, such as inadequate housing or medical services, lack of nourishing food, or severe mental and physical traumas caused by extreme weather patterns such as melting sea ice in an arctic community. Thus, the capability of bodily health is one of several of the capabilities here which highlights this difference. That is to say that having the right to health is different from the ability of an individual or group of individuals actually being able to fully enjoy said right. In order to enjoy a right there is a need for certain abilities to be met, such as having access to health services. In the end, it is much more complex, and therefore must include a capabilities approach to better understand the right to health.
2.1.3 Bodily Integrity
Bodily integrity, the third of the central capabilities, is different from that of bodily health as elucidated above. This is a concept that entails several aspects. Bodily integrity is the ability of people to move freely from place to place and additionally to be secure from violent assault, sexual assault, and
domestic violence while also having the opportunity to have sexual satisfaction and a choice in matters surrounding reproduction (Nussbaum; 2011, 33). This relates to the right to health in that in order for one to be fully able to attain this right they need to be able to move freely and to be free from assault. To move freely for many indigenous communities, for example, entails the ability to feed oneself and other members of the community. Many indigenous also have a deep cultural and mental connection with the natural world, and when they are restricted in their movement on the land they feel anxious and depressed (Cusolo Willox et. al.; 2013, 262). Thus, bodily integrity is another capability which highlights how having the right to health and having the ability to live a life, in this instance in which one can move freely for example, are, in reality, different from one another and is of importance for this paper.
2.1.4 Affiliation
Affiliation is the seventh of Nussbaum’s central capabilities. Affiliation is the ability to live a life with and towards others, it is the ability to recognise and show concern for one’s fellow human beings through imagining the different situations in which they are in (Nussbaum; 2011, 34). This ability is immensely important for this study. It is the ability to understand that each and every human being has a different situation in life and that because of this their abilities in life, such as the enjoyment of their human rights, are different, including from our own. Without the ability of affiliation humans would not be able to feel empathy for one another and work towards the betterment of the entire species. Without this empathy humans would not care for the well-being of one another, and therefore, there would be no desire to ensure the right to health, let alone even have said right, for each and every human being regardless of their background. If a government were to choose not to realise this function it could hinder a portion of the citizenry from attaining their right to health. For this reason, it is included as a part of the theoretical framework of this paper.
2.1.5 Other Species
Other species is the eighth of the capabilities which Nussbaum outlines in her work Creating Capabilities. This capability is the ability to live with concern for and within relation to others outside of the human species, such as animals, plants, and all of the natural world (Nussbaum; 2011, 34). The natural world in which we live is built up of billions of intricate pieces, of species of plants and animals interacting with one another. Everything in this world is dependent on something else. Humans are no different. Although humans have built up an artificial world in which to live their lives, they remain dependent on the natural world around them for life, whether they realise it or not. The air they breathe, the water they drink and the food they eat is all a part of the natural world and is dependent
on its stability. Therefore, it is of immense importance that humans have the ability to live with concern for and in relation with the other species. Without it the right to health would never be attainable. Human civilisation depends on the natural world and other species in order to live healthy, fully lives. From the food we eat, to the air we breathe, to the medicines humans rely on when they are sick, all comes from the natural world, and thus it is of immense importance for the attainment and enjoyment of the right to health for all human beings. If a government were to choose not to realise this function it could hinder a portion of the citizenry from attaining their right to health, as the natural world could be harmed without a second thought. For this reason, this capability is included as part of the theoretical framework for this paper.
3. Method
3.1 Argumentative Method
The main question of this study is, by its very nature, normative. Therefore, it is an attempt to outline to the reader what ought to be the way in which Canadian national energy policy is designed in order to respect the Inuit’s right to health. In order to properly and adequately answer the question at hand, the theoretical framework has been outlined above, and shall be used in conjunction with argumentation to parse out an understanding of why Canada’s national energy policy should be designed in such a way as to ensure the respect of the Inuit’s right to health.
It is likely best to begin with elucidating what exactly an argument is. For many an argument is something that is seen as unpleasant or pointless, or possibly even something that becomes physical. However, that is not have the Compact Oxford Dictionary defines it, nor is it how Michael Gilbert, a professor in the Department of Philosophy at York University, would define an argument. Rather, Gilbert defines an argument as an exchange of information which is centred on an acknowledged disagreement between those involved (1995, 839). In other words, an argument is to offer a set of reasons or evidence in support of a conclusion which one has proposed. Therefore, it can be said, that an argument is an effort one undertakes to support a certain view with reasons (Weston; 2009, xi).
Argumentation should, if it is to be convincing and relevant, follow a set of guidelines or rules to help structure that who is putting forward the argument. Anthony Weston has clearly, and articulately, outlined a set of general rules in his work A Rulebook for Arguments. First off one must identify their premises and conclusions (Weston; 2009, 1). That is to say, what are they arguing for. In an argument the conclusion is the statement which is your starting point, the statement which you seek to provide reasons form. From here you move on to the premises, in other words, the statements
that give you reasons. Once the conclusion and premises have been identified is best to develop your ideas into a natural order, as mentioned above, starting with the conclusion moving on to the premises and finally drawing the conclusion at the end (Weston; 2009, 3). In this way, with the premises in a clear order that flows, the reader or listener will be able to follow the red thread through the argument from beginning to end. One must ensure that they have strong, reliable premises (Weston; 2009, 4). If the premises that one is arguing from are weak, no matter how they argue, the conclusion will be weak. Sometimes this can be easy if there are well-known examples, but unfortunately, this is not always the case and extensive research will need to be done in order to ensure that the premises are reliable. Throughout the argument it is important to be concrete and concise in the language that is used (Weston; 2009, 5). Abstract, vague, or general terms should always be avoided for they only serve to weaken the argument and to lead to people dismissing the argument, even if it may have reliable premises and a strong conclusion. Another way in which the argument may be dismissed is if one builds it upon overtone, rather than upon real substance (Weston; 2009, 5). Always offer actual reasons. Finally, use consistent terms throughout the argument (Weston; 2009, 6). The use of consistent terms not only shows the reader or listener that the one making the argument knows what they are talking about, but it also helps to maintain the red thread for the reader or listener to follow. Thus, helping to effectively convince that which it is desired to convince.
This study will follow these general rules throughout its analysis of the research that has been conducted. This will be done in order to provide the most clear, concise, and reliable argumentation possible for the conclusion which will be made regarding Canada’s national energy policy and the right to health of the Inuit.
4. Background
The following section is to help the reader better understand the situation that currently exist in the world. That is how the Inuit live, in the sense of both their diet and transportation which links to their overall health. Further it will elucidate how this way of life is connected to the sea ice, as well as what Canada’s current national energy policy is and how it relates to climate change. It is hoped that by laying out the current situation before the analysis that the reader will be better prepared for the arguments that are made within the analysis as well as to help bring about a general better understanding of the changing world in which the Inuit are living.
“Eating is never a purely biological activity” (Mintz; 1996, 7), rather it is a practise which is always conditioned with a sense of meaning. For the Inuit, it relates to their history as a people of the North and their connection and dependence on the land and sea for life. Their diet is one that has remained relatively unchanged in modern times. However, that is not to say that there has not been an increase in the consumption of food from the non-Artic regions, also known as Qallunaat food, rather it is to say that a traditional “country food” (Watt-Cloutier; 2015, 17) diet has remained the norm. This traditional diet consists of foods which have been fished, hunted, and gather locally. Traditional foods include such things as the muscle, fat, and organs of a variety of sea animals including walrus, ringed seal, and beluga whale; land animals, or Pisukti, such as caribou and plant life such as berries and seaweed (Searles; 2002, 64/65).
This diet is heavily dependent on the natural environment of the Artic, and thus the sea ice. Thin, less predictable ice has become more common place in the Artic in recent years and decades due to the effects of climate change. This has had a significant impact on the traditional hunting and fishing of the Inuit people, for the rely on thick, long-lasting sea ice cover in order to subsist. This has led to the Inuit, while trying to maintain their traditional diets, to have to hunt in different months, or farther afield risking the thin ice (Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC); 2015, 11). Part of this insistence of maintaining a traditional diet, regardless of the increasing risks, is a concern for their health as well as for losing their culture which is closely linked to their traditional foods. Another reason being the high costs of store-bought foods, which in itself contains its own health risks. Further, traditional Inuit foods are not sold within modern stores, rather they must be obtained by hunters seeking to provide for their communities (ICC; 2015, 11).
4.2 Sea Ice and Transportation
Sea ice is often seen by states, especially those in the arctic, as a nuisance and its disappearance as something that would allow for new trades routes and resource exploration but, as noted above, for the Inuit people it is vital for life and a critical part of the environment in which they live. During much of the year sea ice allows the Inuit people to be able to move around more freely throughout their homeland, and it is often referred to as a sort of highway due to the fact that it forms an extension of the land (Durkalec et. al.; 2015, 18). Unfortunately, the length of time which the Artic sea is covered by ice is shrinking. The ICC noted in a case study of Cape Dorset, Nunavut that there is a shift in the time of when the ice has traditionally, on average, broken up. The ice, as the ICC noted, is beginning to break up sooner in the spring in addition to the higher pace of melting that is taking place (ICC; 2015, 15).
4.3 Canadian Energy Policy
Canada is a country rich in natural resources, and has benefited, fiscally, from this abundance of resources. Currently these natural resources account for approximately 17% of Canada’s GDP (Natural Resources Canada; 2019). Additionally, Canada is the world’s third largest hydro-electricity producer, fourth largest natural gas producer and the fifth largest producer of crude oil. Roughly 20% of Canada’s energy comes from fossil fuels (Natural Resources Canada; 2019).
Canada’s national energy policy is no longer a single document, rather, as it was put by former Natural Resources Minister Jim Carr, it will be an ongoing “dialogue” (Global News; 2017). In 2018, the cabinet of the Government of Canada was shuffled, and a new official was put in place as the minister for Natural Resources. Within the mandate letter from Prime Minister Justin Trudeau was a list of top priorities for the minister. The first of these priorities was work with the Minister of Finance of the twinning of the Trans Mountain pipeline (Prime Minister of Canada; 2019). The government hopes to twin the pipeline to increase the number of jobs in the fossil fuel industry, to ensure that more Canadian oil gets to port and that the number of tankers loaded with crude oil leaving Vancouver increases. In addition to this the minister is to work with other ministers, such as the minister for Environment and Climate Change as well as the minister for Innovation, Science, and Economic Development, to envision and take the next steps towards a low-carbon future (Prime Minister of Canada; 2019). Here lies a central contradiction within the national energy policy of Canada.
4.4 Fossil Fuels and the Climate
Earth is like a greenhouse, warmed by the rays (energy) coming from the sun. The planet is warmed by the rays (energy) coming from the sun. Roughly 90% of this energy is absorbed and radiated back towards the surface of the planet by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere (Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet; 2019). The gases which are contributing to this greenhouse effect are water vapour (H2O), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), and the synthetic compound chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). However, the latter has been largely reduced due to international agreements (Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet; 2019).
CO2 is a minor, albeit very important component of the Earth’s atmosphere. It is released into the atmosphere in different ways, both natural and human induced. It is released through natural processes such as volcanic eruptions and respiration. However, it is also released through human activities such as deforestation, changes in the use of land, i.e. grasslands and forests being turned into industrial-scale farms, and through the burning of fossil fuels (Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet website; 2019). Due to these human activities the amount of CO2 concentration in the
atmosphere has increased by the more than a third since the Industrial Revolution (Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet; 2019).
CH4 and N2O are two powerful greenhouse gases. CH4 is released through both natural and human activities, while N2O is largely released through human activities. CH4 is released through human activities such as the decomposition of waste in landfill, rumination and manure management of animals which are raised for slaughter and consumption, and agriculture (Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet; 2019). N2O is released through the human activities of soil cultivation, especially fertilizers, biomass burning and the burning of fossil fuels (Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet; 2019). These gases, like CO2 are becoming trapped within the atmosphere in ever greater concentrations.
Human activities, especially the burning of fossil fuels, have directly and indirectly led to an increase in the concentration of CO2 and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. This increase in the concentration of greenhouses gases in the atmosphere is leading to rising global temperatures, among many other things. Further, this is causing a feedback loop through the melting of the polar ice caps which reflect the suns energy back out of the atmosphere (Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet; 2019). Due to these facts the majority of fossil fuels will need to remain in the ground in order to avoid the worst effects of the climate crisis, as well as in order to meet the Paris Agreement (SEI; 2019). Therefore, energy policies will need to be looked at to see if they are in line with reality and ensure the best outcome for all people, including ensuring their rights.
5. Analysis
In the following chapter the findings, of the research which has been conducted, will be analysed. This will be done in relation to the analytical framework and research question outlined earlier in this paper. The analysis will be conducted through an argumentative framework that is guided by several of Martha Nussbaum’s central capabilities.
It is worth noting from the outset of this analysis that the ministry of Environment and Climate Change Canada acknowledges and further states that the main factor driving climate change today is human activity and more specifically the burning of fossil fuels and the conversion of land for agricultural use (Government of Canada; 2019). Yet, the Canadian government continues to support, as well as subsidise, the production and combustion of fossil fuels in Canada and abroad. This can be seen through a clear contradiction, outlined earlier, in which the government of Canada seeks to increase the number of jobs in the fossil fuel industry through such projects as pipeline expansion,
while at the same time several ministers have been instructed to work together towards a low-carbon future. This policy, of increasing the number of jobs in the fossil fuel industry and continued extraction, does not put Canada in line to meet its own targets and commitments, nor those agreed upon by the international in the Paris Agreement and thus not a low-carbon future. This will and has already begun to affect the ability of peoples such as the Inuit to fully enjoy their basic human rights, such as the right to health. Therefore, Canada should instead design their national energy policy around the principle of climate justice in order to ensure the full enjoyment of the right to health for the Inuit people, among other rights and peoples.
5.1 Fossil Fuels
The government of Canada’s current national energy policy is one focused on the extraction, production, and export of fossil fuels, especially oil from the Alberta oil sands. This national energy policy is one that is not designed around climate justice for this very fact of its focus on fossil fuels which intensively emit greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Canada’s primary energy production includes 32% uranium, 31% crude oil, 24% natural gas, 5% hydro, 5% coal, 3% other renewables such as wind, tidal, and solar, and lastly 2% natural gas liquids (Natural Resources Canada; 2019). With fossil fuels make up roughly 20% of Canada’s own national energy consumption (Natural Resources Canada; 2019). This oil production is often portrayed as being largely conventional oil, which, while emitting greenhouse gases, is less intensive than bitumen. Bitumen is, according to the University of Calgary (2019), a highly viscous, petroleum-based hydrocarbon, in other words any mixture of hydrocarbons found in crude oil, can be found in deposits such as oil sands, such as those in Alberta, and is also defined as being an extra-heavy oil with less than 10% American Petroleum Institute (API) gravity. This bitumen makes up roughly 61% of Canada’s oil production, a majority which, as mentioned, it is often portrayed is made up by conventional oil (Hughes; 2016, 12). This majority production of bitumen, in addition to the extraction of coal and natural gas, comes at a time which Canada’s oil production is at an all-time high. Oil production in Canada is up roughly 83% since 1999 (Hughes; 2016, 12).
In addition to an all-time-high rate of oil production the government of Canada has also purchased a pipeline, in the name of nations best interest, and is pressing to build more pipelines (Neb; 2019 & CBC; 2018). Canadians are routinely told that the economic future of Canada rests upon pipeline expansion, all while the government acknowledges the negative effects of climate change and has committed Canada to unprecedented cuts in carbon emissions over the coming decades (Rubin; 2017, 1). These pipelines are supposed to help get Canada’s oil to market as well as to increase the
number of individuals working in the fossil fuel sector, even though Canada has committed to reducing its emissions in order to meet the targets set out in the Paris Agreement and to work towards a low-carbon future. Further, the oil which is produced in the Alberta tar sands is not, as it has been noted, conventional oil, rather it is a substance known as bitumen. This bitumen is not able to be extracted from the earth in the same manner than conventional oil is. The extraction of bitumen is not as straightforward as that of conventional oil, it is a much more complex and lengthy process. It is done mainly, roughly 60%, through in situ methods which are more energy and emissions intensive (Hughes; 2016, 12). Thus, this more intensive form of extraction is leading to yet a higher concentration of greenhouse gases, specifically CO2, in the atmosphere.
The rising concentration levels of greenhouse gases, such as and especially CO2, in the atmosphere is leading to a rise in global average temperatures, as the IPCC (2018) has noted. This rise in temperatures is, in turn, causing the melting of the Arctic ice, upon which the Inuit depend for food, transportation and cultural traditions. All of this is affecting the ability of the Inuit people to live to a normal human age, to have good health and to move freely within the place they reside, and thus their capabilities, as listed by Nussbaum, to life, bodily health and bodily integrity are being infringed upon and made unattainable by the extraction and use of fossil fuels. The way in which the effects of climate change, namely that of the melting of the Arctic sea ice, is affecting the capabilities, those outlined by Nussbaum, of the Inuit will be elucidated upon more in the following section.
5.2 Health
The Inuit, on average, have a life expectancy that lags behind that of the rest of Canada, at roughly 15 years lower (Tait; 2006, 10). This fact clearly outlines how the capability of life is not being attained by the Inuit, the reason for this having been outlined above and further explored in more depth throughout the rest of the analysis. This lower life expectancy is due to several different factors at play in the lives of the Inuit, including, but not limited to, the loss of ice in the Arctic. The ice provides the Inuit with a means, as was elucidated upon earlier in the ‘background’ chapter, in which to move around and to food themselves, as well as being a base for their cultural traditions. Without the ice the Inuit, who rely on mainly on hunted and foraged food, are unable to travel out onto the land to hunt and forage for what they call Pisukti. Thus, the ability of the Inuit to move freely and have a good bodily health is hindered through the Canada’s national energy policy which is focused on the extraction, production, use and export of fossil fuels. As it was put by one interviewee in the research done by Cusolo Willox et. al. (2012), “just the fact of being there [on the land] is a boost to your health”.
Research commissioned by the government of Canada into Canada’s changing climate (2019) has shown that the fall and spring snow cover, duration of seasonal lake ice cover, and the summer sea ice extent in the Arctic, over the last three decades, have all decreased. Further, it was noted that that these trends will continue (Bush et. al.; 2019, 11). If the trends continue the Inuit will continue to be adversely affected, and at ever greater levels. In part this is due to the lack of sea ice, as has been noted, but also because disadvantaged groups and groups more heavily reliant on the natural world, such as indigenous communities, will face more serious challenges from climate change (MacDonald et. al.; 2013, 133). The more serious challenges that will be faced by the Inuit are things such as an inability to travel across the land to hunt, forage, take part in traditional ceremonies, or to meet with and interact with other communities. Further, as noted, they will be unable to access traditional hunting grounds, especially those out on the ice where the Inuit hunt for the majority of animals which make up their diet. The Inuit diet is high is sea faring animals such as whales, fish, and seals (Searles; 2014, 64). This inability to go out on the sea ice to hunt, or to go over it to other traditional hunting areas will lead to a lower standard in the health of the Inuit people and they will no longer be able to attain the capabilities of bodily health, life, and bodily integrity. Not only do they rely on hunting and foraging for the majority of their diet, but they have also begun to rely more and more on imported, Qallunaat food. This Qallunaat food is expensive, and the Inuit have adapted over many generations to a diet high is fats and proteins and lead to a different processing of different minerals and acids in the body (Science Daily website; 2019). Additionally, the Inuit have already experienced considerable trauma due to colonisation and the residential school system which has left a people with high rates of mental illness and drug and alcohol abuse (Hackett, Feeny, & Tompa; 2016, 1096). Health impacts which are related to climate change, of which there is growing evidence of, are expected to be experienced most severely by those with such pre-existing traumas, as well as those in marginalised communities and those communities that depend of the local ecosystem for survival (MacDonald et. al.; 2013, 134 & Maibach et. al.; 2010, 2). The health impacts which are linked to climate change are both mental and physical in their nature. Not only does the thinning sea ice present a danger for those who venture out on it to hunt, but this inability to safely go out on the land is having serious effects on the mental health of the Inuit. As it was stated earlier, the act of just being out on the land is associated with good health for the Inuit. They have long taken a more holistic view to health than most states have, however, like the Inuit the WHO also takes a more holistic view to health. Both understand that to be truly healthy there is a need for a healthy environment and culture, education, adequate and safe housing, social supports, and employment opportunities in addition to access to
healthcare systems and it is therefore mental, physical, and cultural or social health and well-being and not solely the absence of illness (Tait; 2006, 10 & WHO Constitution; 1946, 1).
5.3 Government Inaction
Additionally, with the loss of ice in the Artic, due to rising global temperatures from higher concentrations of greenhouse gases emitted by the burning of fossil fuels, comes the inability of people, such as the government of Canada, to live with and towards other human beings as well as to live a life with concern for and within relation to the natural world. The government of Canada continues to maintain an energy policy that is driven by the market and fossil fuels even when the science states that there is a definitive need to move away from fossil fuels. This can be seen in a comment made by Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, “The choice between pipelines and wind turbines is a false one. We need both to reach our goals” (MacLean; 2017, 49). The goals which Trudeau mentions consist of a total of 13 aspirational goals laid out by the government in Achieving a Sustainable
Future: A Federal Sustainable Development Strategy for Canada. Of these 13 aspirational goals, four goals
specifically pertain to energy. These four aspirational goals are: clean growth, clean energy, effective action on climate change and a low-carbon government (Environment and Climate Change Canada; 2016, 12). Each of these, as well as all of the other goals laid out by the government will require the end of extracting and burning fossil fuels for energy. Yet the government, as Trudeau’s statement and official government policy clearly expresses, is not ready to do this and continues to hold the belief that without new pipelines and production of fossil fuels, these goals will not be met.
Canada continues to be the fifth-largest producer of oil in the world (Natural Resources Canada website; 2019). Additionally, Canada has witnessed an explosion of shale gas alongside rising oil sands production and an increase of roughly 14% in emissions from oil and gas between 2005 and 2013 despite Canada’s low-carbon electricity mix (International Energy Association; 2019). This explicitly shows that Canada cannot meet its goals, neither those set out in the Achieving a Sustainable
Future: A Federal Sustainable Development Strategy for Canada nor those that the government committed
to under the Paris Agreement in 2016. This holds further implications for the capabilities of the Inuit. Without clear policies taking significant action to meet these goals, emissions will continue to rise and the way of life and the abilities of the Inuit to reach the full enjoyment of their right to health will be hindered.
The link between the combustion of fossil fuels and climate change has been known since the late 19th century. Yet governments around the world, including that of Canada, have continued to use
is a major factor that is driving the anthropogenic climate change that is being experienced, and is wreaking havoc, the world over (Byrne & Portanger; 2014, 315). The adverse effects on the environment caused by the mining and combustion of these fossil fuels in order to generate energy create environmental injustices for the Inuit, among other people. Yet little attention is being paid by the government of Canada to the intricate links between energy policy, climate justice and climate change. The mining and combustion of fossil fuels is leading to rising levels of morbidity and mortality, a reduction in the quality of life, impaired livelihoods diminished levels of education and loss of employment prospects for the Inuit (Byrne & Portanger; 2014, 316). Additionally, as has been noted several times, this production and use of fossil fuels within Canada’s national energy policy is leading to the melting of Arctic sea ice and thus the loss of habitat for the Inuit. This lack of empathy and consideration of the unique situation of the Inuit by the government of Canada when designing its national energy policy shows that the government has chosen to not realise the capabilities of affiliation and other species. The policies the government has put in place and continues to promote are adversely affecting the Inuit and the natural ecosystem of the Arctic. This elucidates upon the what has been outlined earlier in this analysis, that the government is not living with and towards others, nor is the government having any concern for or living within relation to animals, plants, and the natural world such as the Arctic sea ice. By not taking into consideration the ability of the Inuit to bodily health, bodily integrity and to life, all of which lead the Inuit to be unable to fully enjoy their right to health as well as being a form of injustice imposed on the Inuit by the Canadian government.
In 2016, fossil fuels accounted for roughly 86% of the global energy supply, only falling 4% since 1973, and in the same year seven climate records were broken (McCauley & Heffron; 2018, 2). This represents an exponential problem for the world, as this continued reliance on fossil fuels for the majority of the world’s energy supply, of which, as was noted earlier, Canada is one of the top producers of oil and gas, is significantly raising the concentration of GHG emissions in the atmosphere. This rise in concentration is further fueling climate change which in turn is leading to injustices for the Inuit. For a key injustice in the world is the over-reliance of society on fossil fuels to meet the growing demand for energy (McCauley & Heffron; 2018, 2).
This injustice, which is leading to the loss in the capabilities of bodily health, life, and bodily integrity by the Inuit and the loss of affiliation and of other species by the Canadian government, is a perfect example of the many injustices and marginalisation that are plaguing the Inuit. Further, it leads to the Inuit to be unable to fully enjoy their right to health as enshrined within the human rights framework. Thus, there is a need for the national energy policy of the government of Canada to be
